G. Direct Hydrocarbon Indicators and AVO

G.
Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO - Section Outline
Introduction to direct hydrocarbon indicators
AVO in a nutshell
A little rock physics
Gassmann’s equation and fluid replacement
Vp/Vs ratio and Poisson’s ratio
The Rutherford and Williams classification of AVO anomalies
AVO displays
Acoustic and elastic impedance
Case histories
G-1
G. Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO - Introduction to DHI’s
3D seismic line
with a “bright spot”
and an abrupt down dip
termination
Reservoir
model
G-2
+ .2
Shale/water sand
Reflection coefficient
+ .1 variation
- .1
- .2
Consolidation
G-3
Bright Spot - Group 3
+ .2
+ .1
d
Shale/water san
variation
- .1
- .2
Consolidation
G-4
Phase Change - Group 2
+ .2
+ .1
d
Shale/water san
variation
- .1
- .2
Consolidation
G-5
Dim Spot - Group 1
+ .2
+ .1
d
Shale/water san
variation
- .1
- .2
Consolidation
G-6
The DHI list
Anomalous bright amplitude events

Anomalous dim amplitude events
Abrupt down dip terminations
Non-structural flat spots
Phase changes
Velocity sag
Frequency sag
Amplitude “wipe-outs”
AVO anomalies
G-7
Time
Depth
G-8
Time
Time
G-9
G - 10
David S. Fugitt et al. American E&P Company

Carles E. Steltine et al. Chevron
Leading Edge, April 2000
SEG
Structure map showing the Amplitude extraction on the

fluid contact established by drilling associated DHI
G - 11
Offshore Nigeria - Ufeni gas reservoir
G - 12
G - 13
Density Velocity
2.2 10,000
Gas reservoir
density Gas reservoir
9,500 velocity
2.1
9,000
2.0 8,500
1.0 0.5 0.0 1.0 0.5 0.0
Water saturation Water saturation
G - 14
Far angle stack. Deep water Gulf of Mexico
G - 15
Density contrast inversion. This shows a very

weak
density response. Subsequent drilling discovered
non-economic gas. G - 16
David S. Fugitt et al. American E&P Company

Carles E. Steltine et al. Chevron
AVO in a Nutshell Leading Edge, April 2000
SEG
G - 17
expected but did expected and

Original
not get an AVO got an AVO
Ps
anomaly anomaly
.60 – .80 .75 – 1.00 .85 – 1.00
.35 – .60 .50 – .75 .65 – .85
.15 – .35 .25 – .50 .40 – .65
.00 – .10 .00 – .25 .15 – .40
G - 18
G. Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO - A little rock physics
Spring Compressional Shear

at rest wave wave
The “slinky” model of wave propagation
G - 19
G. Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO
Compressional down Compressional back
Compressional down Compressional and Shear back
G - 20
Reflected
Incident shear Reflected
compressional wave compressional
wave wave
1
1
Vp1, Vs1, 1
 1
Vp2, Vs2, 2  2
2
Transmitted
Transmitted compressional
shear wave
wave
New Snell’s Law
Sin 1
=
Sin 2
=

Sin 1
=

Sin 2
Vp1 Vp2 Vs1 Vs2
G - 21
Compressional velocity
Vp =
4
K+ 3 
K = Bulk modulus

Shear velocity  = Shear modulus
Vs = 
  = Density (specific gravity)
G - 22
Compressional velocity
4 
Velocity
Vp = K+ 3

1.0 Water Saturation 0.0
Shear Modulus
Bulk Modulus
Density
1.0 Water Saturation 0.0 1.0 Water Saturation 0.0 1.0 Water Saturation 0.0
G - 23
K = Bulk modulus
 = Shear modulus
Water as a
rigid pore
filling material
K = Bulk modulus
 = Shear modulus
Gas as a
compressible pore
filling material
G - 24
In the limit
dV
dP
Volume
V
P
Pressure
Engineering definition of Rock physics definition of

Compressibility Incompressibility or Bulk Modulus
Fractional volume change Pressure change (units of pressure)

= =
Pressure change (units of pressure) Fractional volume change
G - 25
Elasticity
Elasticity implies:
The deformation is proportional to the loading

If the loading is removed, the body returns to it’s original state
G - 26
Units of Stress
Kilogram
Pound
Square Inch
Square Meter
6895 Pascals = 1 Pound / Square Inch
Pacal = Pa
3
Kpa (Killo Pascals) = 10 Pa
Mpa (Mega Pascals) = 10 6Pa
Gpa (Giga Pascals) = 10 9 Pa G - 27
G. Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO
10 PSi = 69 KPA
G - 28
Pressure (Pounds/ Square inch)

0 5,000 10,000
0
Overburden
5,000’
Reservoir
10,000’
0 25 50 75
Pressure (MegaPascals)
G - 29
Bulk Shear
Modulus Modulus Vp Vs Density
Quartz 36.6 GPa 45.0 GPa 6.038 Km/s 4.121 Km/s 2.65 Gm/cc
Rock 13.7 GPa 5.4 GPa 3.105 Km/s 1.552 Km/s 2.25 Gm/cc
Water Saturated
Water 2.25 GPa 0 1.500 Km/s 0 1.0 Gm/cc
Oil 1.02 GPa 0 1.129 Km/s 0 .7 Gm/cc
.00013 GPa 0 .447 Km/s 0 .0007 Gm/cc

Gas
G - 30
 Pressure = .014 Gpa = 2000 Psi
Quartz Rock Water Oil

K= K=
36.6 GPa 13.7 GPa K=
2.25 GPa K= Gas
1.02 GPa
K=
.00013 GPa
1 1 1 1
107
2577 980 161 76
Fractional Volume Change

G - 31
4
Velocity Bulk Modulus + Shear Modulus
(Compressional) = 3
Bulk Density
Water Example
Bulk Modulus = 2.25 GPa (from previous chart)

Shear Modulus = 0.0
Bulk Density = 1.0
Velocity
2.25 = 1.50 Km/sec.
(Compressional) =
1.0
= 1500 meters / sec
= 4921 feet / sec
G - 32
4
Velocity Bulk Modulus + Shear Modulus
(Compressional) = 3
Bulk Density
Rock Example (Water Saturated)
Bulk Modulus = 13.7 GPa (from previous chart)

Shear Modulus = 5.4 GPa (from previous chart)
Bulk Density = 2.25
Velocity
13.7 + 4/3 * 5.4 = 3.048 Km/sec.
(Compressional) =
2.25
= 3048 meters / sec
= 10,000 feet / sec
G - 33
Standard temperature and pressure
Gas Volume ratio

gravity Gas
Oil Gas
=
 gas Gas
 air
141.5
Oil API = 
-131.5 Oil
Condensate
Gas Oil
G - 34
Light 50
Typical Oil
(in the reservoir
but measurements made
at STP)
40
Oil API
30
Heavy 20
0 1,000 2,000 3,000
Dead Oil Gassy Oil
Gas / Oil Ratio
G - 35
Poisson’s ratio related to Vp/Vs ratio

Reduces to .5 (fluid)
2
Vp .6
-2
1
 = 2
Vs
Vp
2 .5
-1
Vs
 .4
.3
Vp 2 - 2 .2
=
Vs 2 - 1
.1
0 2 4 6 8
Vp
Reduces to 2 Vs
G - 36
x
y
Spring constant from Hook’s law:
x = dx
x
y = dy
y
x
Poisson’s ratio =
y
Lateral expansion
=
Longitudinal contraction
G - 37
2
Vp
-2 At seismic
1
Dynamic Poisson’s Ratio  = 2
Vs
Vp
2
frequencies
-1
Vs
x
Static Poisson’s ratio =
y
From lab measurements
The Eaton equation
Stress (horizontal) = Stress (vertical)


1 -
G - 38
G. Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO - AVO in a nutshell
Volumetrics Poisson’s Ratio

Shale Sand Hydcrb 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 040
12,300
12,400
12,500
Invasion
Correction 12,600
12,700
12,800
G - 39
Poisson’s ratio
0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 Shale – sand - brine
Depth and consolidation
Shale – sand - oil
Shale – sand - gas
G - 40
Forward Gassmann’s equation

2
Kdry
1- Kmineral
Ksaturated = Kdry +
Porosity 1 - Porosity Kdry
+ -
Kfluid Kmineral Kmineral 2
Reverse Gassmann’s equation

Porosity x Kmineral
Ksaturated + 1 - Porosity - Kmineral
Kfluid
Kdry =
Porosity x Kmineral Ksaturated
+ - 1 - Porosity
Kfluid Kmineral
G - 41
Fluid replacement with Gassmann’s equation
Water Saturated SS Gas Saturated SS
Sonic log
Density
Vp/Vs
 1 4
Vs = Solve for  Using forward Gassmann
 2
and new Kfluid solve
Solve for Ksat for new Ksat
3 5
4 Solve for new Vp,
 Using reverse Gassmann
Vp = Ksat + 3 and Vp/Vs
solve for Kdry

G - 42
Fluid replacement with Gassmann’s equation
Water Saturated SS Oil Saturated SS Gas Saturated SS
Vp = 10,000 Vp = 9,292 Vp = 8,725

Density = 2.25 Density = 2.184 Density = 2.151
Porosity = .22 Porosity = .22 Porosity = .22
Poisson’s ratio = .3 Poisson’s ratio = .24 Poisson’s ratio = .18
Water Saturation = 1.00 Water Saturation = .5 Water Saturation = .5
Gas/ Oil = Medium Gas/ Oil = All Gas
G - 43
A = amplitude
Of reflected P
B
Vp1 p1 s1 p1
Vs1
1
Vp2
Vs2
p2
2
s2 D C
Zoeppritz Equations
G - 44
Amplitude of reflected P
sinp1 coss1 -sinp2 coss2 A -sinp1
-cosp1 sins1 -cosp2 -sins2 B -sinp1
2
sin2p1
Vp1
cos2s1
2 Vs2
2
Vp1
cos2s1
2 Vs2 Vp1
cos2s2 C = cosp1
Vs1 1 Vs1 Vp2 1 Vs1 Vp2
cos2s1 -
Vs1
sin2s1 -
2 Vp2
cos2s2 -
2 Vs2
sin2s2
D -cos2s1
Vp1 1 Vp1 1 Vp1
Zoeppritz Equations
G - 45
Wet Gas
+
Reflected P
Amplitude
 = .3
0
10 20
0
30
0
40
0
 = .3
Top of water zone
- Top of gas zone  = .3

 = .15
G - 46
Common image point gathers
Data courtesy of
Hampson - Russell
G - 47
Wide angle events
G - 48
Source
Reflected compressional waves

Converted shear waves
G - 49
0 0
0 10 200 300
7,000’/sec. Rp .134 .131 .122 .118

 = .33
Rs .000 -.045 -.079 -.091
Wet Tp .866 .869 .883 .915

9,000’/sec.
 = .33 Ts .000 .043 .085 .124
0
0 100 200 300
9,000’/sec. Rp -.162 -.163 -.170 -.182

 = .33
Rs .000 .013 .025 .034
Gas Tp 1.162 1.158 1.145 1.122

7,000’/sec.
 = .15 Ts .000 -.002 -.004 -.006
G - 50
Rutherford and Williams Classification
G - 51
+1.0
Bottom reflection
.0
Top reflection
-1.0
0
0
200 400 600 800
10,000’/sec.  = .33
Gas 8,500’/sec.  = .18
10,000’/sec.  = .33
G - 52
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Un-migrated
traces
Common mid
point
Common mid-point
Migrated
traces
Common image
point
Image point
window Offset
3D bin size
G - 53
Velocity Vp / Vs Ratio
Compressional
Velocity
Vp
Depth
Shear
Velocity
Vs
G - 54
Compressional
Velocity
Vp
Negative
Depth reflection
Shear coefficient
Velocity
Vs
G - 55
The amplitude of the reflected and

transmitted energy for any given angle is predicted
by the
Zoeppritz Equations
G - 56
Vp / Vs Ratio
+
Reflected P
Amplitude
0 0 0 0
10 20 30 40
- G - 57
Vp / Vs Ratio
+
Reflected P
Amplitude
Wet Sediments
0 0 0 0
10 20 30 40
- G - 58
Compressional
Velocity
Vp
Depth
Shear
Velocity
Vs
G - 59
Vp / Vs Ratio
+
Reflected P
Amplitude
0 0 0 0
10 20 30 40
- G - 60
Vp / Vs Ratio
+ Bottom of Gas Zone

Reflected P
Amplitude
Wet Sediments
0 0 0 0
10 20 30 40
- Top of Gas Zone

G - 61
Wet
Gas
G - 62
+ Bottom of Gas Zone

Reflected P
Amplitude
Wet Sediments
0 0 0 0
10 20 30 40
- Top of Gas Zone G - 63

Rutherford and Williams classification
+
Reflected P
Amplitude
1
0 0 0 0
10 20 30 40
2
3
- Top of Gas Zone G - 64
G. Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO - AVO displays
Common image point gathers

(for Class 3 anomalies)
Data courtesy of
Hampson - Russell
G - 65
Approximations to the Zoeppritz equations
The Aki – Richards equation

Aki, K. and Richards, P. , 1980 Quantitative Seismology – Theory and Method
W.H. Freeman & Co.
2 2 2
R() = A + B sin  + C sin  Tan 
1 Vp 
A = Intercept = Rp = + 
2 Vp
B = Gradient 2 2
1 Vp - Vs Vs Vs 
= 4 -2
2 Vp Vp Vs Vp 
1 Vp
C=
2 Vp
The Schuey equation

Schuey, R.T. 1985. A Simplification of the Zoeppritz Equations - Geophysics, 50, 609 - 614
2
R() = Ro Cos +9 Sin 
2
4 G - 66
The Schuey equation

Schuey, R.T. 1985. A Simplification of the Zoeppritz Equations - Geophysics, 50, 609 - 614
2
R() = Ro Cos +9 Sin 
2
4
For  in radians
2
R() = Ro+Sin   9 - Ro
4
Intercept Slope
+ 
+
Reflected P

2
Reflected P
Amplitude
Amplitude
100 200 300 400 100 200 300 400

Top of water zone Top of water zone
- Top of gas zone

- Top of gas zone
G - 67
Amplitude –vs offset effect

On common midpoint gathers
.2
Ro
Class 1 .1
degrees
Class 2 0 20
5 10 15 25 30
-.1 Class 3 Class 2 Class 1

Class 3
-.2
Rutherford and Williams, 1989

Amplitude – vs – Offset Variations in Gas Sands
Geophysics 54, pp 680 - 688
Impedance logs (zero offset)
G - 68
Wet sand model
G - 69
Class 3 Gas sand model
G - 70
Class 2 Gas sand model
G - 71
Class 1 Carbonate
Gas model
G - 72
Fluid line
.2
.1
Ro + A
D B
C degrees
Slope
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
B C
-.1 A D
-
-.2
- Intercept +
AVO effect for wet sediments
(no change in )
G - 73
Fluid line
.2
.1
Ro
Class 1
+
degrees
Slope
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Class 2 3
-.1
Class 3
- 2
-.2 1
- Intercept +
Reservoir top reflections
From Rutherford and Williams Line of constant 
G - 74
Fluid line
.2 1
Class 3
.1
Ro
Class 2
+ 2
3
degrees
Slope
0
5 10 15 20 25 30
-.1 Class 1
-
-.2
- Intercept +
Reservoir bottom reflections
Line of constant 
G - 75
Fluid line
1
+ 2
3
Slope
G
as3
Increasing 3
- GOR
2
1
- Intercept +
Line of constant 
G - 76
Near Far
0 0 0 0
0 10 20 30
Angle stacks from a common image point gather

G - 77
0 – 10 Deg 20 – 30 Deg
G - 78
Amplitude extraction
from the near cube
from the far cube
Data courtesy of
Diamond Geophysical
G - 79
from the full migrated stack
from the AVO cube
Far ( Far - Near )
Data courtesy of
Diamond Geophysical
G - 80
Data courtesy of
Hampson - Russell G - 81
Data courtesy of
Hampson - Russell G - 82
G. Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO - Acoustic and elastic impedance
Near cube stack Near cube inversion
Approximates zero offset
Acoustic impedance
Z = density X Vp
Far cube stack Far cube inversion
Non - zero offset
Elastic impedance
EI = density() X Vp() X Vs()
G - 88
H. Seismic inversion - Section Outline
Seismic inversion in a nutshell
Inverting far offset data and elastic impedance
Getting at rock parameters and pore filling material
The quest for density inversion
Case histories
H-1
H. Seismic inversion - Seismic inversion in a nutshell
Earth The Picture at Vertical Incidence
Reflection Coefficient
Z2 - Z 1
R1=
Z2 + Z 1
Acoustic Impedance
Z = Velocity X Density
1 + Ri
Z i + 1= Z i
1 - Ri
H-2
Impedance Reflection Wavelet Recorded Seismic

Coefficients Superposition Trace Section
Earth
Wavelet
Forward Process H-3

Seismic Reflection
Impedance
Section Coefficients
Wavelet
Inverse Process H-4

Seismic Reflection Deconvolved Integrated
Impedance
Section Coefficients Section Section
Wavelet
Inverse Process H-5

H-6
H-7
H-8
Post-stack Inversion Alan Huffman, Conoco

TLE Feb. 2002
H-9
Integrated
Section
Gamma / Impedance Crossplot

25,000
Clean Sand Shale
Impedance (fps * density)
Line Line
22,000
21,000
0 30 110 150
Gamma (API)
Well Data - Impedance Threshold Display

H - 10
Integrated
Section
Latimer TLE 03/2000
Data Cube - Impedance Threshold Display

H - 11
Integrated
Section
25,000
Impedance (fps * density)
Por = (-.0001 X Imped) +2.475
24,000
23,000
22,000
21,000
0 10 20 30
Porosity %
Well Data - Porosity vs Impedance Cross-plot

H - 12
Integrated
Section
Porosity map for the lower portion of the Lavarans Field

Norwegian North Sea - Dolberg, TLE April 2000
H - 13
Low Relative Absolute

Impedance log
frequencies impedance impedance
Linear
two way
time scale
H - 14
I. 4D Seismic Surveys - Section Outline
The concept of acquiring a 4D seismic survey
The 4D products
The acquisition and processing problems
A case history
I-1
I. 4D Seismic Surveys - The concept of a 4D survey
Discovery Development
Difference
I-2
Original 3D survey
Development plan Implementation
Predicted difference
New 3D survey
Inversion Reservoir model Actual difference
I-3
Water Saturation
High Low
Diagram Courtesy of
Western
Atlas
I-4
I. 4D Seismic Surveys - Acquisition footprint
Field layout
Structurally simple horizon
3D data cube
I-5
I. 4D Seismic Surveys - Acquisition footprint
Acquisition layout Amplitude extraction

for a Land 3D survey on a shallow horizon
I-6
J. Gravity and Magnetics - Section outline
Introduction to Gravity and Magnetic measurement

What is being measured
Interpretation methods and information obtained
Units of measurement
Gravity measurement
Data reduction
Density values
Extracting anomalies
Example
Magnetic measurement
The earth’s magnetic field
Rock magnetization
Model example
Field example
CSEM
CSEM Material
J-1
J. Gravity and Magnetics - Introduction
Magnetic information Gravity information

Measures - Measures -
Variations in the earth’s magnetic field produced by Variations in the acceleration due to the earth’s
induced magnetism due to the earth’s field gravity field
This is largely due to the content of magnetite This is due to the density of the material between
which determines the magnetic susceptibility the point of measurement and the center of the
earth. It is also influenced by structural
features surrounding the point of measurement
Magnetic Susceptibility Density

J-2

Method of interpretation - Method of interpretation -
Anomaly width measurement to determine the Various methods of regional trend estimation
depth to the causative mass to determine deviations from the regional trend
Rotation to the polls to eliminate the dipole nature ie. Residual analysis
of the data Forward modeling
Anomaly trends to indicate faulting Inversion techniques
Forward modeling

J-3

Units of measurement Units of measurement
Gamma units or nanno Tesela units Milligals – mg
 or nT The earth’s average acceleration due to gravity
 1 gamma = 10-5 gauss = 1 nT
Is about 980 cms/sec^2 = 980 gals
1 milligal is .001 gal
Current survey accuracy = .05 nT
Current survey accuracy = .1 milligals
The map accuracy is a function of the line spacing
The map accuracy is also a function of the
sample spacing
Usually acquired by aero-mag measurement
Acquired by shipboard or land station measurement

J-4

Depth to magnetic basement and Density model including the sediments and
basement magnetization the basement
Basement structure Sediment and basement structures
Tectonic features Anticlines, synclines
Understanding basement attached structures Sault structures – domes, pillows, ridges
Total sediment thickness Lithology – carbonate vs clastic
Intrusive activity Reef structures
Drainage patterns Overburden density model
Basin and sub-basin boundaries
Thermal maturation modeling

J-5
Corine Prieto
J-6
J. Gravity and Magnetics - Gravity measurement
Airborne
Terrain correction (gravity attraction of surrounding material) Gravity Meter
Station
Free air correction (distance from the
center of the earth, ie elevation
between the station and the datum)
* Bouguer correction (density of the

material between the station and the
datum)
Latitude correction (due to the fact that the

earth’s radius is larger at the poles)
Bouguer Gravity
Land Gravity Meter

(Microgal sensitivity)
J-7
Air
Methane
Petroleum
Water
Mud
Shales
Sandstones
Limestones
Salt
Dolomite
Anhydrite Gypsum
Igneous
0 1.0 2.0 3.0
Density ( g / cc. )
J-8
Bouguer gravity
Bouguer gravity
Regional trend
Residual gravity
J-9
Corine Prieto
J - 10
J - 11
J. Gravity and Magnetics - Magnetic measurement
Geomagnetic
Inclination and relative pole
magnitude of the total
magnetic vector at the Magnetic lines of force
earths surface in the earth and
external space
The regional field is defined by the International Geomagnetic Reference Field (IGRF)
J - 12
I = 90 deg I = 45 deg I = 0 deg
Variation in the total intensity of the induced magnetic anomaly

with changes in the magnetic latitude
J - 13
The magnetization of rocks
I=kH Where I = is the induced magnetism

k = is the susceptibility
H = the earth’s field
ie. k is a ratio
The normal earth’s field is about 50,000 gamma or nT
Rule of thumb: the susceptibility is given by:

K = .03 p Where p is the % of magnetite
Typical value used for basement rocks is .001
Sedimentary susceptibilities
Clastic .000 - .0001
Carbonate .000 - .00008
J - 14
Corine Prieto
J - 15
Final Edited Total Magnetic Field 1.5 – 7 Km Bandpass
J - 16

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G.

Direct hydrocarbon indicators and AVO - Section Outline

Introduction to direct hydrocarbon indicators

A little rock physics

Gassmann’s equation and fluid replacement

Vp/Vs ratio and Poisson’s ratio

The Rutherford and Williams classification of AVO anomalies

Acoustic and elastic impedance

Bright Spot - Group 3

Phase Change - Group 2

Dim Spot - Group 1

The DHI list

Anomalous bright amplitude events

David S. Fugitt et al. American E&P Company

Structure map showing the Amplitude extraction on the

Offshore Nigeria - Ufeni gas reservoir

Far angle stack. Deep water Gulf of Mexico

Density contrast inversion. This shows a very

David S. Fugitt et al. American E&P Company

expected but did expected and

.60 – .80 .75 – 1.00 .85 – 1.00

.35 – .60 .50 – .75 .65 – .85

.15 – .35 .25 – .50 .40 – .65

.00 – .10 .00 – .25 .15 – .40

Spring Compressional Shear

The “slinky” model of wave propagation

Compressional down Compressional back

Compressional down Compressional and Shear back

New Snell’s Law

Engineering definition of Rock physics definition of

Fractional volume change Pressure change (units of pressure)

The deformation is proportional to the loading

Pressure (Pounds/ Square inch)

Water 2.25 GPa 0 1.500 Km/s 0 1.0 Gm/cc

Oil 1.02 GPa 0 1.129 Km/s 0 .7 Gm/cc

.00013 GPa 0 .447 Km/s 0 .0007 Gm/cc

 Pressure = .014 Gpa = 2000 Psi

Quartz Rock Water Oil

Fractional Volume Change

Bulk Modulus = 2.25 GPa (from previous chart)

Rock Example (Water Saturated)

Bulk Modulus = 13.7 GPa (from previous chart)

Standard temperature and pressure

Gas Volume ratio

Poisson’s ratio related to Vp/Vs ratio

Spring constant from Hook’s law:

The Eaton equation

Stress (horizontal) = Stress (vertical)

Volumetrics Poisson’s Ratio

Shale – sand - oil

Shale – sand - gas

Forward Gassmann’s equation

Reverse Gassmann’s equation

Fluid replacement with Gassmann’s equation

Water Saturated SS Gas Saturated SS

Fluid replacement with Gassmann’s equation

Water Saturated SS Oil Saturated SS Gas Saturated SS

Vp = 10,000 Vp = 9,292 Vp = 8,725

sinp1 coss1 -sinp2 coss2 A -sinp1

-cosp1 sins1 -cosp2 -sins2 B -sinp1

- Top of gas zone  = .3

Common image point gathers

Wide angle events