Group Theory

Topic No. 1
Group Theory

Properties of Real
Numbers
Properties of Real Numbers

Number Systems
ℕ ={ 1, 2, 3, … }
ℤ={…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, … }
ℚ={p/q | p, q ∊ ℤ and q≠0}
ℚˊ= Set of Irrational
Numbers
ℝ=ℚ ∪ ℚˊ
Properties of Real Numbers

0.131313…=0.13+
0.0013+0.000013+…
=13/100+13/10000+
13/1000000+…
=(13/100)(1+1/100+
1/10000+…)
=(13/100)(100/99)
=13/99
 Properties of Real Numbers

 e=2.718281828459045… ∊ ℚˊ
 √2=1.414213562373095… ∊ ℚˊ
 √5=2.23606797749978… ∊ ℚˊ
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a.b ∊ ℝ
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a+b ∊ ℝ
 ∀ a, b, c ∊ ℝ, (a+b)+c=a+(b+c)
 For example, (1/4+3)+ √7=(13+4 √7)/4=1/4+(3+ √7)
 Properties of Real Numbers

 ∀ a, b, c ∊ ℝ, (ab)c=a(bc)
 For instance, ((-2/3)4)√2=(-8/3) √2 =(-2/3)(4 √2)
 For every a ∊ ℝ and 0 ∊ ℝ, a+0=a=0+a
 For every a ∊ ℝ and 1 ∊ ℝ, a.1=a=1.a
 For every a ∊ ℝ there exists -a ∊ ℝ such that
a+(-a)=0=(-a)+a
 For every a ∊ ℝ\{0} there exists 1/a ∊ ℝ\{0} such that
a(1/a)=1=(1/a)a
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a+b=b+a
 ∀ a, b ∊ ℝ, a.b=b.a
Group Theory

Topic No. 2
Group Theory

Properties of Complex
Numbers
 Properties of Complex Numbers

 ℂ={a+bi | a, b ∊ ℝ}
 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ, (a+bi)+(c+di)=(a+c)+(b+d)i ∊ ℂ
 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ, (a+bi).(c+di)=(ac-bd)+(ad+bc)i ∊ ℂ
 ∀ a+bi, c+di, e+fi ∊ ℂ, [(a+bi)+(c+di)]+(e+fi)=
[(a+c)+(b+d)i]+(e+fi)=[(a+c)+e]+[(b+d)+f]i
=[a+(c+e)]+[b+(d+f)]i=(a+bi)+[(c+e)+(d+f)i]=
(a+bi)+[(c+di)+(e+fi)]
 Properties of Complex Numbers

 ∀ a+bi, c+di, e+fi ∊ ℂ, [(a+bi).(c+di)].(e+fi)

=[(ac-bd)+(bc+ad)i].(e+fi)
=[(ac-bd)e-(bc+ad)f]+[(bc+ad)e+(ac-bd)f]i
=[a(ce-df)-b(de+cf)]+[a(de+cf)]+b(ce-df)]i
=(a+bi).[(ce-df)+(de+cf)i]=(a+bi).[(c+di).(e+fi)]
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ and 0=0+0i ∊ ℂ, (a+bi)+0=
(a+bi)+(0+0i)=(a+0)+(b+0)i=a+bi=0+(a+bi)
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ and 1=1+0i ∊ ℂ, (a+bi).1=
(a+bi).(1+0i)=(a.1-0b)+(b.1+0.a)i=a+bi=1.(a+bi)
 Properties of Complex Numbers

 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ there exists -a-bi ∊ ℂ such that

(a+bi)+(-a-bi)=(a+(-a))+(b+(-b))i=0+0i=0=(-a-bi)+(a+bi)
 For every a+bi ∊ ℂ\{0} there exists
1/(a+bi)=a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i ∊ ℂ\{0}
such that (a+bi).(a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i )
= (a2+b2)/(a2+b2)+((ab-ab)/(a2+b2))i=1+0i=1
=(a/(a2+b2)-(b/(a2+b2))i )(a+bi)
Properties of Complex Numbers

 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ,
(a+bi)+(c+di)=(a+c)+(b+d)i
=(c+a)+(d+b)i=(c+di)+(a+bi)
 ∀ a+bi, c+di ∊ ℂ,
(a+bi).(c+di)
=(ac-bd)+ (ad+bc)i
=(ca-db)+(cb+da)i
=(c+di).(a+bi)
Group Theory

Topic No. 3
Group Theory

Binary Operations
Binary Operations

Definition
A binary operation ∗ on a
set S is a function
mapping S x S into S.
For each (a, b) ∈ S x S, we
will denote the element
∗((a, b)) of S by a∗b.
Binary Operations

 Usual addition ‘+’ is a

binary operation on the
sets ℝ, ℂ, ℚ, ℤ, ℝ+, ℚ+,
ℤ+
 Usual multiplication ‘.’ is
a binary operation on
the sets ℝ, ℂ, ℚ, ℤ, ℝ+,
ℚ + , ℤ+
 Usual multiplication ‘.’ is
a binary operation on
the sets ℝ\{0}, ℂ\{0},
ℚ\{0}, ℤ\{0}
Binary Operations

Let M(ℝ) be the set of all

matrices with real entries.
The usual matrix addition
is not a binary operation
on this set since A+B is
not defined for an
ordered pair (A, B) of
matrices having different
numbers of rows or of
columns.
Binary Operations

Usual addition ‘+’ is not a

binary operation on the
sets ℝ\{0}, ℂ\{0}, ℚ\{0},
ℤ\{0} since
2+(-2)=0 ∉ ℤ\{0}⊂ℚ\{0}
⊂ ℝ\{0} ⊂ ℂ\{0}.
Binary Operations

Definition
Let ∗ be a binary
operation on S and let H
be a subset of S.
The subset H is closed
under ∗ if for all a, b ∈ H
we also have a∗b ∈ H.
In this case, the binary
operation on H given by
restricting ∗ to H is the
induced operation of ∗
on H.
Binary Operations

Usual addition ‘+’ on the

set ℝ of real numbers
does not induce a binary
operation on the set
ℝ\{0} of nonzero real
numbers because
2∈ℝ\{0} and -2∈ℝ\{0},
but 2+(-2)=0 ∉ ℝ\{0}.
Thus ℝ\{0} is not
closed under +.
Binary Operations

Usual multiplication ‘.’ on

the sets ℝ and ℚ induces
a binary operation on the
sets ℝ\{0}, ℝ+ and ℚ\{0},
ℚ+, respectively.