Introduction

Computer
Networking: A Top
Down Approach
6th edition
Jim Kurose, Keith Ross
Addison-Wesley

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Roadmap
what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure

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What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
 millions of connected
PC mobile network
server computing devices:
wireless  hosts = end systems global ISP
laptop
smartphone  running network apps
home
 communication links network
regional ISP
wireless  fiber, copper, radio,
links satellite
wired
links  transmission rate:
bandwidth

 Packetswitches: forward
router packets (chunks of data) institutional
network
 routers and switches
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What’s the Internet: “nuts and bolts” view
mobile network
 Internet: “network of networks”
 Interconnected ISPs
global ISP
 protocols control sending,
receiving of msgs
 e.g., TCP, IP, HTTP, Skype, 802.3 home
network
 Internet standards regional ISP
 RFC: Request for comments
 IETF: Internet Engineering Task
Force

institutional
network

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What’s a protocol?
human protocols: network protocols:
 “what’s the time?”  machines rather than
 “I have a question” humans
 introductions  all communication activity
in Internet governed by
protocols
… specific msgs sent
… specific actions taken
when msgs received, or protocols define format, order
other events
of msgs sent and received
among network entities,
and actions taken on msg
transmission, receipt
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What’s a protocol?
a human protocol and a computer network protocol:

Hi TCP connection
request
Hi TCP connection
response
Got the
time? Get http://www.awl.com/kurose-ross
2:00
<file>
time

Q: other human protocols?

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Roadmap
what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure

1-7
Internet history
1961-1972: Early packet-switching principles
 1961: Kleinrock -  1972:
queueing theory shows  ARPAnet public demo
effectiveness of packet-  NCP (Network Control
switching Protocol) first host-host
 1964: Baran - packet- protocol
switching in military nets  first e-mail program
 1967: ARPAnet  ARPAnet has 15 nodes
conceived by Advanced
Research Projects
Agency
 1969: first ARPAnet
node operational

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Internet history
1972-1980: Internetworking, new and proprietary nets
 1970: ALOHAnet satellite
network in Hawaii
 1974: Cerf and Kahn -
architecture for interconnecting
networks
 1976: Ethernet at Xerox PARC
 late70’s: proprietary
architectures: DECnet, SNA,
XNA
 late 70’s: switching fixed length
packets (ATM precursor)
 1979: ARPAnet has 200 nodes
Cerf and Kahn’s
internetworking principles:
 minimalism, autonomy - no
internal changes required to
interconnect networks
 best effort service model
 stateless routers
 decentralized control
define today’s Internet
architecture
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Internet history
1980-1990: new protocols, a proliferation of networks

 1983: deployment of  new national networks:

TCP/IP Csnet, BITnet, NSFnet,
 1982: smtp e-mail Minitel
protocol defined  100,000 hosts connected
 1983: DNS defined for to confederation of
name-to-IP-address networks
translation
 1985: ftp protocol defined
 1988: TCP congestion
control

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Internet history
1990, 2000’s: commercialization, the Web, new apps
 early 1990’s: ARPAnet
decommissioned
 1991: NSF lifts restrictions on
commercial use of NSFnet
(decommissioned, 1995)
 early 1990s: Web
 hypertext [Bush 1945,
Nelson 1960’s]
 HTML, HTTP: Berners-Lee
 1994: Mosaic, later Netscape
 late 1990’s:
commercialization of the Web
late 1990’s – 2000’s:
 more killer apps: instant
messaging, P2P file sharing
 network security to
forefront
 est. 50 million host, 100
million+ users
 backbone links running at
Gbps
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Internet history
2005-present
 ~750 million hosts
 Smartphones and tablets
 Aggressive deployment of broadband access
 Increasing ubiquity of high-speed wireless access
 Emergence of online social networks:
 Facebook: soon one billion users
 Service providers (Google, Microsoft) create their own
networks
 Bypass Internet, providing “instantaneous” access
to search, email, etc.

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Roadmap
what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure

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Internet “layers”
Networks are complex,
with many “pieces”:
 hosts Question:
 routers is there any hope of
 links of various organizing structure of
media network?
 applications
 protocols
 hardware,
software

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let us consider two friends who communicate through postal
mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be
complex if there were no services available from the post
office.

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Why layering?
dealing with complex systems:
 explicit structure allows identification,
relationship of complex system’s pieces
 layered reference model for discussion
 modularization eases maintenance, updating of
system
 change of implementation of layer’s service
transparent to rest of system
 layering considered harmful?

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Internet layered model (TCP/IP Model)

 application: supporting network

applications application
 FTP, SMTP, HTTP
 transport: process-process data transport
transfer
 TCP, UDP network
 network: routing of datagrams
from source to destination link
 IP, routing protocols
 link: data transfer between physical
neighboring network elements
 Ethernet, 802.111 (WiFi), PPP
 physical: bits “on the wire”
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ISO/OSI reference model
 presentation: allow applications
to interpret meaning of data, application
e.g., encryption, compression,
machine-specific conventions presentation
 session: synchronization, session
checkpointing, recovery of data transport
exchange
network
 Internet stack “missing” these
layers! link
 these services, if needed, must be physical
implemented in application
 needed?

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TCP/IP and OSI model

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 message M
source
application
Encapsulation
segment Ht M transport
datagram Hn Ht M network
frame Hl Hn Ht M link
physical
link
physical

switch

destination Hn Ht M network
M application Hl Hn Ht M link Hn Ht M
Ht M transport physical
Hn Ht M network
Hl Hn Ht M link router
physical

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A private internet

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 Communication at the physical layer

Legend Source Destination

A R1 R3 R4 B
Physical Physical
layer layer
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

011 ... 101

01
1.
..
10
1

011 ... 101 011 ... 101

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 Communication at the data link layer
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Data link Data link

Physical Physical
Link 1 Link 3 Link 5 Link 6

D2 H2
Frame
D2 ame
Fr

H2

D2 H2 D2 H2
Frame Frame

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 Communication at the network layer
Legend Source Destination D Data H Header
A R1 R3 R4 B
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D3 H3
Datagram

D3 H3
Datagram

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 Communication at transport layer
A Legend Source Destination D Data H Header B
Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D4 H4
Segment

D4 H4
Segment

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 Communication at application layer
A B
Application Legend Source Destination D Data H Header Application

Transport Transport
R1 R3 R4
Network Network

Data link Data link

Physical Physical

D5 D5
Message

D5 D5
Message
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Different Addresses

Four levels of addresses are used in an internet

employing the TCP/IP protocols: physical address,
logical address, port address, and application-specific
address. Each address is related to a one layer in the
TCP/IP architecture.

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Different Addresses

 Physical Addresses
 Logical Addresses
 Port Addresses
 Application-Specific Addresses

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Addresses in the TCP/IP protocol suite

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Roadmap
what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure

1-30
A closer look at network structure:
 network edge: mobile network

 hosts: clients and servers

global ISP
 servers often in data
centers
home
 access networks, physical network
regional ISP
media: wired, wireless
communication links

 network core:
 interconnected routers
 network of networks institutional
network

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Access networks and physical media

Q: How to connect end

systems to edge router?
 residential access nets
 institutional access
networks (school,
company)
 mobile access networks
 Examples: DSL, Cable
network etc.
keep in mind:
 bandwidth (bits per second)
of access network?
 shared or dedicated?
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Wireless access networks
 shared wireless access network connects end system to router
 via base station aka “access point”

wireless LANs: wide-area wireless access

 within building (100 ft)  between 1 and 10 Mbps
 802.11b/g (WiFi): 11, 54 Mbps  3G, 4G
transmission rate

to Internet

to Internet

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Physical media
 bit: propagates between
transmitter/receiver pairs
 physical link: what lies twisted pair (TP)
between transmitter &  two insulated copper
receiver wires
 guided media:  Category 5: 100 Mbps, 1
Gbps Ethernet
 signals propagate in solid  Category 6: 10Gbps
media: copper, fiber, coax
 unguided media:
 signals propagate freely,
e.g., radio

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Physical media: coax, fiber
coaxial cable: fiber optic cable:
 two concentric copper  glass fiber carrying light
conductors pulses, each pulse a bit
 bidirectional  high-speed operation:
 broadband:  high-speed point-to-point
 multiple channels on cable transmission (e.g., 10’s-100’s
Gpbs transmission rate)
 low error rate:
 repeaters spaced far apart
 immune to electromagnetic
noise

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Physical media: radio
 signal carried in
electromagnetic spectrum
 no physical “wire”
 bidirectional
 propagation environment
effects:
 reflection
 obstruction by objects
 interference
radio link types:
 terrestrial microwave
 e.g. up to 45 Mbps channels
 LAN (e.g., WiFi)
 11Mbps, 54 Mbps
 wide-area (e.g., cellular)
 3G cellular: ~ few Mbps
 satellite
 Kbps to 45Mbps channel (or
multiple smaller channels)
1-36
Roadmap
what is the Internet?
history
Internet layers, service models
network edge
 end systems, access networks, links
network core
 packet switching, circuit switching, network structure

1-37
The network core
 mesh of interconnected
routers
 packet-switching: hosts
break application-layer
messages into packets
 forward packets from one
router to the next, across
links on path from source
to destination
 each packet transmitted at
full link capacity

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Packet-switching: store-and-forward

L bits
per packet

3 2 1
source destination
R bps R bps

 takes L/R seconds to one-hop numerical example:

transmit (push out) L-bit
packet into link at R bps  L = 7.5 Mbits
 store and forward: entire  R = 1.5 Mbps
packet must arrive at router  one-hop transmission
before it can be transmitted delay = 5 sec
on next link
 end-end delay = 2L/R (assuming
zero propagation delay)
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Packet Switching: queueing delay, loss

R = 100 Mb/s C
A
D
R = 1.5 Mb/s
B
queue of packets E
waiting for output link

queuing and loss:

 If arrival rate (in bits) to link exceeds transmission rate of
link for a period of time:
 packets will queue, wait to be transmitted on link
 packets can be dropped (lost) if memory (buffer) fills up

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Packet-switching: Cut-Through

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Alternative core: circuit switching
end-end resources allocated
to, reserved for “call”
between source & dest:
 In diagram, each link has four
circuits.
 call gets 2nd circuit in top
link and 1st circuit in right
link.
 dedicated resources: no sharing
 circuit-like (guaranteed)
performance
 circuit segment idle if not used
by call (no sharing)
 Commonly used in traditional
telephone networks
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Internet structure: network of networks
 End systems connect to Internet via access ISPs (Internet
Service Providers)
 Residential, company and university ISPs
 Access ISPs in turn must be interconnected.
 So that any two hosts can send packets to each other
 Let’s take a stepwise approach to describe current Internet
structure

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Internet structure: network of networks
Question: given millions of access ISPs, how to connect them
together?
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

access access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-44
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to every other access ISP?

access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

connecting each access ISP

access
to each other directly. access
net net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-45
Internet structure: network of networks
Option: connect each access ISP to a global transit ISP? Customer
and provider ISPs have economic agreement.
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net

global
access
net
ISP access
net

access
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-46
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
….
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net
access
access net
net
ISP A

access access
net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-47
Internet structure: network of networks
But if one global ISP is viable business, there will be competitors
…. which must be interconnected
access access
Internet exchange point
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access peering link

net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-48
Internet structure: network of networks
… and regional networks may arise to connect access nets to
ISPS
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A

access IXP access

net ISP B net

access
ISP C
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-49
Internet structure: network of networks
… and content provider networks (e.g., Google, Microsoft,
Akamai ) may run their own network, to bring services, content
close to end users
access access
net net
access
net
access
access net
net

access
IXP access
net
net
ISP A
Content provider network
access IXP access
net ISP B net

access
ISP B
net
access
net

access
net regional net
access
net
access access
net access net
net

1-50
Internet structure: network of networks
Tier 1 ISP Tier 1 ISP Google

IXP IXP IXP

Regional ISP Regional ISP

access access access access access access access access

ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP ISP
 at center: small # of well-connected large networks
 “tier-1” commercial ISPs (e.g., Level 3, Sprint, AT&T, NTT), national &
international coverage
 content provider network (e.g, Google): private network that connects
it’s data centers to Internet, often bypassing tier-1, regional ISPs

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Tier-1 ISP: e.g., Sprint

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