SamplingTechnique Report2018

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
PhD 202 – Advance

Educational Research
By:
Ernie O. Acuña
Marites D. Manganti
Ronald John C. Sayson
Mark Jarus T. Talanquines
Terms
Sampling
- Refers to the process of selecting a sample of individuals from the total
population to be studied.
Population
- Refers to all members of any well-defined set of group of people or
objects which is the focus of the study, and from which a sample is
drawn.
Sample
- Refers to a sub-group or portion of the population selected to represent
the population.
- Number of elements in the sample is the sample size.
- The members of the sample are called as participants
- A sample is “a smaller (but hopefully representative) collection of units
from a population used to determine truths about that population”
Population
 Target population refers to all the members who meet the particular criterion specified for a
research investigation.
 A single entity of any given population which is not decomposable further is called as an
element. An element may be an individual, a household, a factory, a market place, a school,
etc.
 What an element is going to be depends on the nature of population. What a population is
going to be depends on the nature of investigation. In other words, every element has all
the characteristics that meet the described criteria of target population.
 A population may be homogenous or heterogeneous. A population is said to be
homogenous when its every element is similar to each other in all aspects.
 A population is said to be heterogeneous when its elements are not similar to each other in
all aspects.
 In other words, one characteristic variable is not same among all the elements while they
meet the rest of the criteria that defines the target population.
SAMPLING and its PURPOSE
• On the basis of information obtained from the sample, the inferences are
drawn for the population. The more the sample is representative of the
population, the higher is the accuracy of the inferences and better are the
results generalizable.
• A sample is said to be representative when the characteristics of elements
selected are similar to that of entire target population.
• The results are said to be generalizable when the findings obtained from
sample are equally true for the entire target population.
• Sampling process may encounter the problem of systematic errors and
sampling biases.
• Sampling bias is said to occur when the selected sample does not truly reflect
the characteristics of population.
Sampling Design/ Technique
- Is needed when the population is large, and

the researcher wants to take samples as
representatives of the entire population. It is
practical and convenient for the researcher
because it can save time, money and effort.
- The sampling designs / techniques could help
determine the correct and exact number of
samples (sample size), and selection of
samples to represent the population.
A sample design is made up of two elements.

1. Sampling method. Sampling method refers to
the rules and procedures by which some elements
of the population are included in the sample.
2. Estimator. The estimation process for calculating
sample statistics is called the estimator. Different
sampling methods may use different estimators.
Cont.
For example, the formula for computing a mean
score with a simple random sample is different from
the formula for computing a mean score with a
stratified sample. Similarly, the formula for the
standard error may vary from one sampling method
to the
The sample next.
size can be determined using the Slovin formula:
Where:
N = Population
n = Sample Size
e = Margin of error
Sampling Design/ Technique –Slovin’s Formula
The problem with taking a sample of the population is sample
size. Obviously, if you asked just one person in the population if Problems with Slovin’s Formula
they were vegetarian then their answer wouldn’t be Slovin’s formula gives you a ballpark figure to
representative of everyone. But would 100 people be sufficient? work with. However, this non-parametric formula lacks
1000? Ten thousand? How you figure out a big enough sample mathematical rigor (Ryan, 2013). For example, there is
size involves applying a formula. While there are many formulas no way to calculate statistical power (which tells you
to calculate sample sizes, most of them require you to know how likely your study distinguishes an actual effect from
one of chance). It’s unclear from any reference texts
something about the population, like the mean. But what if you
exactly what the “error tolerance” is (a mean, or
knew nothing about your population? That’s where Slovin’s
perhaps a proportion?).
formula comes in. Some texts call the error tolerance a “tolerance
When Slovin’s formula is used margin of error” (e.g. Ariola, 2006), although it seems to
If you have no idea about a population’s behavior, use Slovin’s be unrelated to the margin of error used in traditional
formula to find the sample size. The formula (sometimes written hypothesis tests. The Margin of Error in that sense is the
as Sloven’s formula) was formulated by Slovin in 1960. error associated with a result (for example, you could
say 62% of people voted for so and so with a 3% margin
The error tolerance, e, can be given to you (for example, in a
of error). From the context, it’s almost certainly another
question). If you’re a researcher you might want to figure out name for the alpha level.
your own error tolerance; Just subtract your confidence level
from 1. For example, if you wanted to be 98 percent confident
that your data was going to be reflective of the entire population
then:
1 – 0.98 = 0.02 e = 0.02.
The Stages that
are Likely to go
through when
Conducting
Sampling
Sampling Techniques
2. Non-probability
1. Probability
Sampling
Sampling
METHODS/TECHNIQUES
2.1 Quota sampling
1. Simple random 2.2 Snowball sampling
2. Stratified random 2.3 Purposive, judgmental or
3. Cluster sampling deliberate sampling , Genealogy
4. Systematic sampling Based Sampling
5. Multi stage sampling 2.4 Convenience sampling
2.5 Matched Sampling
Probability Sampling
- Probability sampling means that every item in the
population has an equal chance of being included in
sample. One way to undertake random sampling would
be if researcher was to construct a sampling frame first
and then used a random number generation computer
program to pick a sample from the sampling frame
(Zikmund, 2002).
- Probability or random sampling has the greatest
freedom from bias but may represent the most costly
sample in terms of time and energy for a given level of
sampling error (Brown, 1947).
- Advantages:
o This sampling technique reduces the chance of
systematic errors.
o The methods minimize the chance of sampling
biases.
o A better representative sample is produced using
probability sampling techniques.
o Inferences drawn from sample are generalizable to
the population.
- Disadvantages:
o The techniques need a lot of efforts
o A lot of time is consumed.
o They are expensive.
1.1. Simple random sampling
- The simple random sample means that every
case of the population has an equal
probability of inclusion in sample.
Disadvantages associated with simple
random sampling include (Ghauri and
Gronhaug, 2005):
a. Method:
i. Before taking a sample the population is needed to be defined. In
other words, one must know what characteristics constitute the
population of interest.
ii.A list of all the elements of population is required.
iii.One needs to prepare the list if the readymade is not available.
iv.The list must be exhaustive i.e. it must contain the name of each and
every element of the population.
v.One method for the selection of participants is lottery method: each
element is first given a number and then numbers are individually
written on slips of paper. The slips are put and mixed thoroughly in
some bag or bowl. Then the decided number of slips is drawn out of it.
vi.Other methods may be the use of any random table generated
through computer or any other resource.
vii.The selected participants are approached and investigation is done.
b. Benefits:
i. There is not the possibility of sampling biases.
ii. The sample is a good representative of the population.
c. Crucial Issues/ Draw Backs:
iii.It may be very costly and time consuming especially in those cases
when the participants are widely spread geographically and difficult
to approach
iv.It needs a lot of efforts especially for a large population.
v. In many circumstances it is not possible to get or prepare an
exhaustive list of elements. Even apparently complete lists may
also exclude some of the potential elements. For instance, we
randomly select the population of a town using telephone list. Is it
sure that everybody in the town has a connection?
1.2. Stratified random
sampling
- Stratified sampling is where the population is
divided into strata (or subgroups) and a
random sample is taken from each subgroup. A
subgroup is a natural set of items. Subgroups
might be based on company size, gender or
occupation (to name but a few). Stratified
sampling is often used where there is a great
deal of variation within a population. Its
purpose is to ensure that every stratum is
adequately represented (Ackoff, 1953).
1.2. Stratified random
sampling
- The sample is drawn in such a way as to
ensure adequate representations for each of
the population sub-groups or strata in the
sample. After sample is determined, sample
size for each group is computed using the
formula:
Where:
nt n1 = sample size for first group
N1 = population of first group
Nt = total population
nt = total sample size
1.2. Stratified random sampling
a. Method:
ii. On the basis of nature and purpose of investigation it is decided
which criterion has to be taken into account to make the sub groups
(strata)
iii. Then on the basis of decided criterion stratification is done
iv. A list of all the elements of each strata is required.
v. One needs to prepare the list if the readymade is not available.
vi. The list must be exhaustive.
vii. The participants are then selected from each stratum through
lottery method or using any random table (as in simple random
sampling)
1.2. Stratified random sampling
b. Benefits:
i. For a heterogeneous population it produces a representative
sample as it captures the diversity which otherwise is likely to be
undermined through simple random or systematic random
sampling.
c. Crucial Issues/ Draw Backs
i. It needs a lot of efforts.
ii. It is costly and time consuming
iii. If the criterion characteristic/ variable used for classification is
not selected correctly, the whole research may go in vain
1.3. Cluster sampling
- Cluster refers to any entire group of
individuals or objects which share similar
characteristics important in the study. The
samples are drawn in clusters rather than in
using separate individuals. It is the groups not
the individuals that are randomly selected.
Grouping of individuals is based on the
different categories/ characteristics like, the
geographical setting where individuals belong,
commodity raised, tribal affiliation, etc.
- Cluster sampling is where the whole
population is divided into clusters or groups.
Subsequently, a random sample is taken from
these clusters, all of which are used in the final
sample (Wilson, 2010). Cluster sampling is
advantageous for those researchers whose
subjects are fragmented over large
geographical areas as it saves time and money
(Davis, 2005).
a. Method
i. First of all the population is divided into clusters.
ii. The clusters are selected randomly using simple random or
systematic random sampling techniques.
iii. The selected clusters are visited.
iv. All the elements (may be individuals, households, schools,
markets etc. depending on the nature of investigation) within
the selected clusters are investigated
b. Advantages
i. More convenient for geographically dispersed populations
ii. Reduced travel costs to contact sample elements
iii. Simplified administration of the survey
iv. Unavailability of sampling frame prohibits using other random sampling
methods
v. In cases where the population is spread over a wide geographical region,
cluster sampling is used to reduce cost as compare to simple random or
systematic random sampling.
vi. It consumes less time and efforts than the aforementioned techniques.
vii. For instance the list of elements of the population is not required.
viii. Moreover, instead of going place to place over a widely spread area for
randomly selecting elements, you get a group of elements in one
geographical region.
c. Disadvantages
i. Statistically less efficient when the cluster elements are similar
ii. Costs and problems of statistical analysis are greater than for
simple random sampling
d. Crucial Issues/ Draw Backs:
i. It may sometimes lead to sampling biases and systematic errors.
ii. For instance, in the selection of markets only big markets may
be selected, though randomly. So this selection is likely to impact the
results. The results may be different if there were small markets in
the selection too.
iii. If clusters are not homogeneous among them, the final sample may
not be representative of the population.
1.4. Systematic sampling
- Systematic sampling is where every nth case
after a random start is selected. For example,
if surveying a sample of consumers, every fifth
consumer may be selected from your sample.
The advantage of this sampling technique is its
simplicity. The sampling interval is computed
before selecting the right samples with the
formula:
Where: K = Size of selection interval
N = Population Size
n = Sample Size
1.4.Systematic sampling
a. Method:
ii. In case where exhaustive list of elements of the target population is
available, the list is arranged and numbered in an order 1 to N.
iii. To find an appropriate interval suppose population contains N
number of elements and we need a sample of n size.
iv. Divide N by n. the number obtained through this division, say k, is
an appropriate interval size to produce a representative sample.
v. Ask for a starting number from a person(1 to Nth)
v. In case where the list is not possible to make an interval size is
decided and then participants appearing with that interval are
approached.
1.4.Systematic sampling
b. Benefits:
i. It ensures the extension of sample to the whole population
ii. It provides the way to get a random and representative
sample in the situation where prior listing up of elements is
not possible.
i. It may be very costly and time consuming especially in
those cases when the participants are widely spread
geographically and difficult to approach
ii. It needs a lot of efforts especially for a large population.
1.5. Multi-stage sampling
- This sampling involves several phases in
drawing the samples from the population. The
population units are grouped and arranged
into hierarchical order or level, and sampling is
done successively.
- Multi-stage sampling is a process of moving
from a broad to a narrow sample, using a step
by step process (Ackoff, 1953).
a.Method:
i. Usually at the first stage target population is divided into clusters.
ii. The clusters are selected randomly.
iii.These clusters are called as first stage units or primary units
iv. These clusters are homogenous among them but may be
heterogeneous inside.
v. To overcome this heterogeneity, homogenous sub groups called as
strata are formed.
vi.So the strata are called the second stage units or sub-units.
vii. The formation of these strata can be done using cluster
sampling technique or stratified random sampling technique
depending on the nature of investigation.
viii. In each stratum the units may need to be further divided, for
instance market places into shops, buildings into houses etc.
ix.The final units obtained are investigated.
b. Advantages:
i. It increases cost and time efficacy.
ii. For instance instead of investigating all the elements within a cluster, if a
sample is randomly drawn from each cluster, the results will be similar but
with lesser efforts. This particular sampling method where random sampling
is done within the selected clusters is called as two stage sampling.
iii. The technique is also useful in overcoming the heterogeneity problem
within the clusters.
i. If the selected clusters do not capture the characteristic diversity of
population, the sample would not be representative of the population.
ii. If the characteristic variable used for making strata (in case of
heterogeneity) at any stage is not appropriately selected depending on the
nature of investigation, the whole research may go in vain.
Non Probability Sampling
- Non probability sampling is often associated
with case study research design and
qualitative research. With regards to the
latter, case studies tend to focus on small
samples and are intended to examine a real
life phenomenon, not to make statistical
inferences in relation to the wider population
(Yin, 2003).
- A sample of participants or cases does not
need to be representative, or random, but a
clear rationale is needed for the inclusion of
some cases or individuals rather than others.
Advantages:
• The techniques need less effort.
• These techniques need less time to finish
up.
• They are not much costly.
Disadvantages:
• The sampling techniques are prone to
encounter with systematic errors and
sampling biases.
• The sample cannot be claimed to be a
good representative of the population.
• Inferences drawn from sample are not
generalizable to the population.
2.1. Quota sampling
- The samples to be gathered depend on the
needed participants. It is assumed that the
samples will match the population with regard to
the chosen set of characteristics (Vockell, 1983).
- Quota sampling is a non-random sampling
technique in which participants are chosen on the
basis of predetermined characteristics so that the
total sample will have the same distribution of
characteristics as the wider population (Davis,
2005).
2.1.Quota sampling
a. Method:
i. First of all there is a need to identify the variable which makes the
target
ii. population heterogeneous.
iii. On the basis of the identified variable sub groups are made.
iv. A quota is set for each sub group.
v. Then the sample is approached on the basis of set quota
b. Advantage:
i. It ensures the presence of every sub group of the population in the
sample.
ii. There is not the requirement of any lists of the elements of population.
iii. It is less time consuming and low in cost than stratified random
sampling.
c. Crucial Issues/Draw Backs:
2.1.Quota sampling
There are two types of quota: proportionate, and non-

proportionate
1. Proportionate quota sampling

In proportionate quota sampling the percentage of every sub
group is set on the basis of their actual proportion present in
the population.
Example: if quota is made on the basis of age and the population

comprises of 30% young, 40% middle age, and 30% old individuals,
so the quota will be made in the same proportion. In this way the
sample of 200 participants will contain 60 young, 80 middle age and
2.1.Quota sampling
There are two types of quota: proportionate, and non-

proportionate
2. Non-proportionate quota sampling:

In non-proportional quota sampling the percentage of quota does
not go with the proportion of the sub-group present in the
population rather a minimum percentage is set that is to be
included.
Example: the researcher wants to include all the ethnic minority

groups present in the country. So a quota is set like this: at
least 3% Hindus, 3% Christians and so on.
2.2. Snowball sampling
- This sampling technique is good

when there is no available list of
population units to work. Any
person can be taken as sample
provided, he can give the needed
information relative to the study.
- Snowball sampling is a non-random
sampling method that uses a few cases to
help encourage other cases to take part in
the study, thereby increasing sample size.
This approach is most applicable in small
populations that are difficult to access due
to their closed nature, e.g. secret societies
and inaccessible professions (Breweton
and Millward, 2001).
a. Method:
i. The investigator selects a person who matches the criteria of the
research
ii. The first participant is now asked to refer the investigator to
another person who meets the same criteria.
iii.Now the second participant approached is asked to refer the
researcher to another one. In this way a chain is made.
b. Advantage:
i. This technique is useful in approaching the type of population
which is not readily available or present in a very small quantity.
c. Crucial Issues/Draw Backs:
i. It is subjected to sampling biases and systematic errors due to
network connection.
2. 3. Purposive, judgmental or deliberate
sampling
- In this sampling technique, the

researcher uses his judgment and
an appropriate strategy in selecting
the subjects who will comprise the
samples, and who will meet the
purposes of the study.
2. 3. Purposive, judgmental or deliberate
sampling , Genealogy Based Sampling
Purposive or judgmental sampling is a
strategy in which particular settings
persons or events are selected
deliberately in order to provide important
information that cannot be obtained from
other choices (Maxwell, 1996). It is where
the researcher includes cases or
participants in the sample because they
believe that they warrant inclusion.
2.3. Purposive Sampling
It is not a mutually exclusive category of the sampling
technique rather many other non probability techniques are
purposive in nature.
In fact William M. Trochim divided non-probability techniques
into two broader categories: convenient and purposive .
Thus all the other types of sampling techniques are described
under the heading of purposive sampling.
In purposive sampling the sample is approached having a prior
purpose in mind.
The criteria of the elements who are to include in the study is
predefined.
So we do not include everyone who is available to us rather
those available are included who meet the defined criteria.
2.3. Purposive Sampling
Example:
o The purpose of a research is to investigate which type of
clothing middle age women prefer.
o The investigator visits a cloth market.
o There are many women in the place but the investigator goes
to only those women who appear of middle age group and ask
them to participate in his research.
o It is because the researcher had a purpose of doing such a
selection.
o He had set the criteria for his elements i.e. they should be
women, and should be of middle age.
2.3. Genealogy Based Sampling
 This sampling technique has been mostly used

for taking samples from rural areas
 Using this technique, instead of selecting
household in an area, the members of the entire
families are selected (whether or not living in
the same house)
 It gives a reasonable cross section of the
community by age and sex.
2.3. Genealogy Based Sampling
Method:
o First a participant is approached and is convinced to take part in the
research.
o This participant is now asked to refer the researcher to his close
relatives who may be living in other areas.
Benefits:
o This sampling technique is useful in taking the sample from traditional
rural areas where there are not much social and economic differences
between families; you do not need to persuade each participant to be
part of research instead you get the participants through references.
Crucial Issues/Draw backs:
o There are higher chances of systematic errors in the cases where
members from a family tend to be similar in comparison to members
from different families.
2. 4. Convenience Sampling
It is also called as accidental sampling or
opportunity sampling.
The researcher includes those participants
who are easy or convenient to approach.
The technique is useful where target
population is defined in terms of very
broad category.
2.4. Convenience sampling
- The researcher selects the samples of
the study based on his convenience. He
may take any person whom he meets at
anytime and anywhere. He may use
telephone or other possible means to
reach out sample-individuals efficiently.
Convenience sampling is selecting
participants because they are often
readily and easily available. Typically,
convenience sampling tends to be a
favored sampling technique among
students as it is inexpensive and an easy
option compared to other sampling
techniques (Ackoff, 1953).
a. Method:
i. Any member of the target population who is available at the
moment is approached.
ii. He or she is asked for participation in the research.
iii. If the person shows consent, the investigation is done.
b. Crucial Issues/ Draw Backs:
i. It is subjected to sampling biases and systematic errors.
ii. The categories of target population are broader enough to be
divisible into infinite number of categories within themselves which
are contrastingly different from one another and cannot at any cost
be representative of each other.
c. Advantage:
i. It consumes fewer efforts.
ii. It is inexpensive.
2.5. Matched Sampling
 This technique is used in experimental
researches.
 The main purpose of this sampling is to take a
control group to assess the effects of an
intervention.
 Two groups of elements that resemble on a
variety of variables are selected.
 Intervention is introduced on only one group.
 The other group is used to compare with the first
one to see what impacts the intervention
2.5. Matched Sampling
Method:
o First one element is judged to be a part of the research.
o Then, another element is explored that resembles the first
one on a variety of important variable.
Benefits:
o The technique makes it possible to examine if an intervention
is really useful or not.
Draw backs/ Crucial issues:
o In the selection of the matching element care must be taken
and the elements must be matched on every possible
influencing factor so that it may be claimed that the changes
in the two elements are due to introduced intervention and
not something else.
Which Sampling Technique to
Use in Research?
The use of an appropriate sampling technique is very
important to make a research project beneficial, meaningful
and successful.
The prime goal of research also affects the decision of

sampling technique. If the research is meant at exploring an
idea rather than understanding a population, non-probability
techniques are well suited; if the research is intended to
develop the understanding about the population, probability
sampling is suggested.
Which Sampling Technique to
Use in Research?
Furthermore, it depends on the availability of

resources (i.e. time, cost and efforts) which
sampling technique can be used. Where
enough resources are available, probability
techniques are preferred; where resources are
not enough non probability techniques are
suggested.
Thank you!
References:
International Journal of Academic Research in Management
Volume 5, Issue 2, 2016, ISSN: 2296-1747
http://www.elvedit.com/
Copyright © 2016 Helvetic Editions LTD

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SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

PhD 202 – Advance

- Is needed when the population is large, and

A sample design is made up of two elements.

There are two types of quota: proportionate, and non-

1. Proportionate quota sampling

Example: if quota is made on the basis of age and the population

There are two types of quota: proportionate, and non-

2. Non-proportionate quota sampling:

Example: the researcher wants to include all the ethnic minority

- This sampling technique is good

- In this sampling technique, the

 This sampling technique has been mostly used

The prime goal of research also affects the decision of

Furthermore, it depends on the availability of

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