BELOW THE CLAUSE

English Clause is a combination of three different structures deriving from

distinct functional components. These functions are :
1. Ideational ( clause as representational)
2. The interpersonal ( Clause as exchange)
3. Textual (Clause as message)
Each one of these component contributes a more or less complete structure. But
when we look below the clause and consider the grammar of the group, the
pattern is somewhat different.
 GROUP AND PHRASES

Group: A combination of words built up on the basis of particular logical

relation.
Phrase: A phrase is different from a group in that, a group is an expansion of a
word, a phrase is a contraction of a clause.
The two achieve roughly the same status on the rank scale, as units that lie
somewhere intermediate between the rank of a clause and that of a word.
 GROUP

A group is in many respects a group of words or a word complex: words enter

into logical structure to form a group. The structure is that of Head and
modifier(s). Examples:

Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier

a very bright student from Halden
extremely bright
brighter than most
has been studying
 THREE MAIN CLASSES OF GROUP

1. Nominal Group
2. Verbal Group
3. Adverbial Group
Along with a brief reference to
Prepositional Groups and
Conjunction Groups
 NOMINAL GROUP

a nominal group is a group of words which expresses an entity, for

example:
"The nice old English police inspector who was sitting at the table is Mr.
Jack".
Grammatically here, "The nice old English police inspector who was
sitting at the table" functions as a nominal group and acts like the subject
of the sentence.
 EXPERIENTIAL STRUCTURE OF A
NOMINAL GROUP

[The suit] is definitely [the universal business outfit for

[men]].
There is [nothing else that [men] like to wear when [they]'re
doing [business]].
[I] don't know why [it] projects [this image of [power]].
Why is it [intimidating]?
"[We]'d better do what [this guy] says, [his pants] match [his
jacket]."
 NOMINAL GROUP

Pre-modifier Head Postmodifier

Deictic Epithet Classifier (Thing)
determiner / adjective noun / noun prepositional phrase /
numeral adjective embedded clause /
adjective
The suit
the universal business outfit for men

nothing else | that men … business

this image of power
this guy
his pants
his jacket
a simulate breast pocket
d
another chance to wear it
a leather jacket that got ruined in the rain
 DEICTIC:
indicates whether or not some specific subset of the thing is intended:

Items Functioning As Specified Deictic

Determinative Interrogative
This that Which (ever)
These those
Demonstrative
What (ever)
the
My your our
His her its
Their Whose (ever)
Possessive One’s
[John’s]
[my father’s] etc. Which person’s etc.
ITEMS FUNCTIONING AS NON- SPECIFIC
DEICTIC
Non-Singular
Singular Plural mass/ unmarked
plural
Each both all
Positive Every
Total Neither No
Negative (Not (not any)
either)
One Some
Selective either any
Partial
Non- some
Selective a(n)
one two ‘not one’ (unrestricted)
 NUMERATIVE: The Numerative element
indicate some numerical feature of the subset: either
quantity or order, either exact or inexact.
Items Functioning as Numerative
 EPITHET

The Epithet indicates some quality of the subset e.g. Old, Long, Blue, Fast. These
are called experiential Epithet. This may be an objective property of the thing
itself; or it may be an expression of the speaker’s subjective attitude towards it,
e.g., splendid, silly, fantastic. These are called interpersonal Epithet.
 CLASSIFIER

The Classifier indicates a particular subclass of the thing in

question. For example:
Look at those two old splendid electric trains.
e.g. fast trains, passenger trains, wooden trains, toy trains.
Sometime the same word may function as Epithet or as Classifier.

Verb as Epithet:
i. a galloping horse ( a horse which is galloping)
ii. a bleeding nose ( a nose that is bleeding)
Verb as Classifier:
i. a stopping train( a train which stops)
ii. Spoken language( language which is spoken)
 THE THING

The element we are calling ‘thing’ is the semantic core

of the nominal group. It may be common noun,
proper noun, or (personal pronoun). The personal
pronoun can be categories as follows:
 HEAD AND THING

There is always a Head in the nominal group but there may be no thing. (like
one blue eye and one brown). It is quite normal to have Numerative or Deictic
as Head, as,
(a) (look at ) those two (b) (look at) those

Deictic Numerative Deictic

Modifier Head Head

ß α α
 VERBAL GROUP

A verbal group is the expansion of a verb, in the same way

that a nominal group is the expansion of a noun. It consists
of words of the primary class of verb. If we consider has
been eating just as a word sequence, it consists of a ‘lexical
verb’ eat, which comes last; a finite verb has, which comes
first; and an auxiliary verb been which comes in between.
No other ordering of these components is possible.
 EXPERIENTIAL STRUCTURE OF VERBAL GROUP

The experiential Structure of the finite verbal group is Finite plus Event, with
optional Auxiliary( one or more). For example:
a) One word verbal group:

ate
Finite/Event

b) Long string verbal group:

couldn’
have been going to be being eaten
t
Finite Auxiliary1 Auxiliary2 Auxiliary3 Auxiliary4 Auxiliary5 event/head
 PHRASAL VERBS

Phrasal verbs are lexical verbs which consist of more than just the verb word
itself. They are of two kinds, plus a third which is the combination of two:
1. Verb +adverb e.g. look out, “ unearth, retrieve”
2. Verb+ preposition e.g. look for “ seek”
3. Verb + adverb + preposition e.g. look out for

Transitivity Analysis of Phrasal Verbs

I ‘m looking for a needle
Actor Process Goal
 ADVERBIAL GROUP

The adverbial group has an adverb as Head,

which may or may not be accompanied by modifying elements. Pre-modfiers are
grammatical elements like not , rather and so ; there is no lexical pre-modification
in the adverbial group.

Pre-modifier Head Post-modifier

prepositional phrase / embedded
adverb(s) adverb
clause / adverb
much more quickly than I could count
too quickly for me (to follow)
faster than I could go
as early as two o'clock
 CONJUNCTION GROUP

Within the primary word class of adverbials ,

there is another class besides adverbs, namely
conjunctions. They are generally linkers and
continuatives.
Conjunctions also form word groups by
modification, for example even if , just as not
until, if only, as soon as
 PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

A Prepositional Phrase consists of a preposition plus a nominal group, for

example, on the burning desk. A representation of the prepositional phrase is
as follows:

The boy stood on the burning deck

Process: Place
Actor Material ‘process’ ‘Range’

The boy Stood On The burning deck

‘stand’
Subject (past) Finite Adjunct
predicator
Residue
Mood
‘Predicator’ ‘Complement’
SUMMARY OF THE WORD CLASS
 CLAUSE COMPLEX

Clauses combine together to form a clause complex.

Traditionally, a series of related clauses make up the
higher rank unit ‘ sentence’, but according to Halliday
clauses combine to form a clause complex, They do not
thereby create a new grammatical unit of higher
rank. His position is that the sentence is not a unit of
grammar , but a unit of English orthography, realizing
the grammatical construction clause complex.
RANK SCALE
 TAXIS AND LOGICO-SEMANTIC
REALTIONSHIPS

Taxis is concerned with the INTERDEPENDECY

relations between grammatical units forming a clause
complex.
The two options within the system of TAXIS are those
of PARATAXIS AND HYPOTAXIS, categories
which relate to ( but are not identical with) traditional
notions of co-ordination and subordination,
respectively.If the units in a complelx are of equal
status, the relation between them is Paratactic one ;if
the units are of unequal status, the relation is
hypotactic one.
 EXAMPLES OF PARACTACTIC
RELATION

He looked terrible; ‫׀׀‬his clothes were crumpled and dirty.

Miriam was somewhat scared by the wind, ‫׀׀‬but the lads
enjoed it.
He hated her, ‫׀׀‬for she seemed in some way to make him
despise himself.
He replied quickly, “ ‫׀׀‬I can’t complain.”
 HYPOTATIC RELATION

Dominant(α) Dependent (β)

They spoke to Dr Liu, Who was an ear, nose and throat

specialist.
The man rarely left the village apart from visiting his sister in York
once a month.
when you sit there in your rocking
I can do my best things
chair
that there was no possibility of a
He explained new lease.
LOGICO-SEMANTIC TYPE

Expansion
Projection
 EXPANSION

There various logico-sementic relations

included as expanding relations are of three
main kinds:
Elaboration
Extention
Enhacement
 ELABORATION (=)

The elaborating relation is symbolized in the

notation with an “ equals” sign.IN a paratactic
clause elaborating complex an initial clause is
restated, exemplified or further specified by
another.There is no over linker between the
clauses apart from a colon or semi-colon in a
written text:
He looked a fright; ‫׀׀‬his clothes were damp, dirty and torn.
1 =2
She didn’t like the chararcter she was playing; ‫׀׀‬she hated her selfconfidence.
 HYPOTECTIC ELABORATING
COMPLEX

They were now in the bare country of stone walls, ‫׀׀‬which he loved.
The accident left him with two broken front teeth, ‫׀׀‬which was such a
shame
 EXTENSION (+)

The basic meanings of the extending relation

are those of addition or variation. The
extending relation combines most frequently
with parataxis, being realized most typically
by the conjunctions and, nor , but, and or For
example:
The beef animal is the buffalo .‫׀׀‬and its meat is surprisingly is tender
The idea of relativity did not originate with Einstein, ‫׀׀‬but [it] goes back to
Newton
 ENHANCEMENT( )

The meaning included enhancement are those

of time, place, manner, cause and condition,
which can also be expressed as circumstances
within the clause:
John was scared, ‫׀׀‬so he ran away.
They dried their clothes .‫׀׀‬by hanging them on branches in the wind
 PROJECTION

Projection typically concerns the relation between a

mental or a verbal clause and the content which it
quotes or reports. A paratactic relation holds when one
clause reports another
(direct speech/though) and hypotactic relation when
one clause reports another ( indirect speech/thought).
Projection through verbal clause is locution
symbolized by (’’) notation, while projection through
mental clause is an idea notated as (’)
 EXAMPLES

Projecting clause locution

His aunt told him ( that ) he should write home more frequently.
His aunt told him to write home at lest once a month.
His aunt told him not to forget
Projecting Clause Idea
His aunt wishes that he would write home more regularly.
His aunt would have liked him to write home regularly.
His aunt expected him to forget
 QUESTIONS

How many relationships are there between

clauses?
Answer :
Two
1) Taxis
2) Logicosemantic type
 QUESTION NO 2

What are the two types of Taxis?

Answer:
Paratactic
Hypotactic
 QUESTION #3

What two types of logico-semantic

relationship have been discussed.
Answer:
Expansion
Projection
 QUESTION# 4

We express the relationship of extension by

the following symbol?
+
=
-
*
Answer:
+
 QUESTION# 5

The following sentence is the example of ........

His aunt told him that he should write home.
Locution
Idea
Extension
Hypotactic
Answer:
Locution
 QUESTION#6

How many groups have been discussed in the

presentation?
3
4
5
6
Answer:
5
 QUESTION#7

Deictic belongs to ………………group.

Nominal
Verbal
Adverbial
Conjunction
Answer:
Nominal
 QUESTION#8

Event is the part of adverbial group

True
False
Answer:
False
 QUESTION#9

Can verb function as Classifier

Yes
No
Don’t know
Maybe
Answer
Yes
 QUESTION# 10

What is most important element in a group

Thing
Head
Verb
Subject
Answer
Head