AFT END STRUCTURE

DATED 26 & 27 MARCH 2018

Rud
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Aft End Structure
 Aft End Structure
When we look at the stern of a ship, we often wonder as to why do ships have
various types of aft end structures and what’s the purpose of each one of them.
While constructing and designing a ship, a number of factors such as hydrodynamic
efficiency, construction simplicity & flow patterns are considered for designing a
ship’s stern.

the following criteria governs the choice of the ship’s stern form:

•It should be designed to provide low resistance

•It should be able to provide high propulsion efficiency by ensuring uniform inflow of
water to propeller

•The stern designed must avoid vibrations.

 Types Of Sterns Used on Ships
Common Types of Ship’s Sterns

The sterns can be broadly classified into the following –

•Elliptical Stern

•Cruiser Stern

•Transom Stern

Considerable attention is paid to the overall design of the stern in order to improve
the flow into and away from propeller. The cruiser stern was for many years the
favoured stern type for ocean going ships, but today most of these vessels have
transom stern.
cruiser stern
TRANSOM STERN
 Cruiser Stern
The cruiser stern for many years, was favourite stern type for ocean going ships but
today most of these vessels have a transom stern.

A cruiser stern presents a more pleasant profile and is hydrodynamically efficient.

A cruiser stern is characterized by an upward curved profile from the after perpendicular
to the main deck or poop. A cruiser sterns cutaway for the rudder occurs below the
waterline (the rudder is fully submerged at the design waterline). The cruiser has better
resistance characteristics. The length of the waterplane with a cruiser stern is greater.
Overhang cruiser stern may be subjected to large slamming forces a substantial
construction with adequate stiffening is required.

The construction of the cruiser stem ensures adequate resistance to any pounding
stresses which may occur.

Solid plate floors are fitted at every frame space and a heavy-centerline girder is
fitted below each of the decks in the stern.

A centerline web as a continuation of the centerline girder is fitted at the after end
shell plating and runs down to the centreline girder in the flooring region.

Special frames are radiuses around the after end and are known as 'cant frames',
since they are set at an angle to the centreline of the ship.

These cant frames join cant beams which support the deck at the radiused after
end.
Horizontal stringers (or Panting stringer if fitted spaced 2.5 M) may also be fitted
to stiffen up the structure by connecting it to the transverse frames further
forward.

Cant frames are not required where the transom stern is adopted, as the
flat stern plating may be stiffened with vertical stiffeners.

Deep floors and a centre line girder are provided at the lower region of the
transom stern construction.

***
One interesting feature of aft end stiffening arrangements is Cant beams. Cant
beams are instrumental in providing longitudinal as well as transverse strength to
the stern arrangement. They are radial in nature and are directly welded to the
shell plating giving a kind of web frame structure. Cant beams are often coupled
with cant frame providing additional strength.
****
The rounded, cruiser type stern presents less flat surface area for a following sea
to push upon
 Transom stern
Basically a transom stern is a stern shape characterized by a generally flat shape
extending to the waterline. The transom stern offers a greater deck area aft, is a simpler
construction, and can also provide improved flow around the stern. The flat surface of
any transom stern may begin either at or above the waterline of the vessel.
Design considerations on a deeply submerged square or transom stern:

The edges of the square stern must be sharp so that the flow separates cleanly

While optimising the design of the stern, stability of the ship is given more priority to the
width of the stern

The stern, and in particular its underside, influences the propulsion efficiency. Lesser the
turbulence in the area between propeller and outer shell above the propeller more will
be its efficiency. The space marked in red denotes the clearance area.
 Transom stern

Deep solid-plate floors together with a centrelinegirder are also fitted in transom stern
construction.

The flat plate of the transom stern construction, however, allows use of vertical
stiffeners around the shell plating.

The vertical stiffeners are bracketed to the floor and to the deck beams which run
transversely across the stem.

A deep horizontal stringer can provide additional stiffening to the shell plating if
required.
A deep center girder runs beneath each of the decks at the stern and bracketed to the
deep web at the centreline of the after shell plating.

This web is likewise bracketed to the various floors in the stern and finally to the solid-
plate floor construction below.
 Stern frame
The shell plating at the after end is terminated by the sternframe .

The stern frame of a ship may be cast, forged, or fabricated from steel plate and
sections. On larger ships it is generally either cast or fabricated.

In single-screw ships the stern frame has a boss on the centerline for the tail shaft to
pass through and an adequate gap is provided for the propeller to operate in.

If sufficient clearance at the blade tips were not allowed then serious vibrations
would be set up in the after end of the ship.
 Stern frame
The lower part of the stern frame may provide a support for the rudder post or an
overhanging section may provide gudgeons for the rudder pintles.

Various sections of the stern frame, particularly above the arch, provide connecting
points to the individual flows of the after end construction.

The transom post and vibration post are two particular connections. Twin screw
ships have a stern frame which is only required to support the rudder pinltes and is
thus much reduced in size.
Larger stern frames, particularly those of cast construction, are manufactured in two
parts with provision roade for bolting together and, after careful alignment,welding
at the suitably prepared joint.
 Stern
The shape of the stern affects the speed, resistance, and performance of the ship. It
also affects the way water is forced to the propellers.

The design of the stern is critical in following seas where the stern is the first part of
the ship to meet the waves. If the following waves lift the stern too high, the bow may
be buried in the sea. The force of the wave will push the stern causing it to pivot
around toward the bow. If this is not controlled, the result can be that a ship pitch
poles or broaches.

The cruiser type stern tends to split the waves of a following sea allowing it to pass
forward along each side of the ship. Thus the wave has minimum impact on the
attitude of the vessel and provides additional buoyancy for the stern.

Always steer into any sideways movement of the stern. For example, when the stern
slips to starboard, turn to starboard. It is particularly important that these corrections
be made quickly and accurately in short, choppy following seas.

Transom sterns provide a larger surface area for the seas to push upon and should not
be exposed to heavy following seas or surf conditions.
 cruiser stern
The cruiser stern for many years, was favourite stern type for ocean going ships but
today most of these vessels have a transom stern.

A cruiser stern presents a more pleasant profile and is hydrodynamically efficient,

The transom stern offers a greater deck area aft, is a simpler construction, and can
also provide improved flow around the stern.

Both the shape of the stern and the rudder type will dictate the form of the stern
frame, and this will be further influenced by the required propeller size.

Of particular importance at the after end are the arrangements which permit both
the propeller shaft and the rudder stock to pierce the intact watertight hull.

The safety of the ship may depend on these arrangements.

As the cruiser stern overhang may be subjected to large slamming forces a

substantial construction with adequate stiffening is required.
 RUDDER
The rudder controls the direction of the ship and may vary widely in size, design,
and method of construction. The shape of the stern, the number of propellers,
and the characteristics of the ship determine the type of rudder a ship can use.

Balanced -About 40% rudder area is forward of the stock

Semi-balanced - more than half of the blade aft of the rudder post (but less than
80 per cent).

Unbalanced - blade entirely aft of the rudder post

 When a rudder is turned to some angle (α), a force (F) is produced due to
the high and low pressure regions generated by the water flow. On one
side of the rudder the flow reduces in speed whilst on the other it
increases. By Bernoulli, lower velocities are associated with higher
pressure, whilst higher velocities give lower pressure so that a rudder
force is produced as shown in the sketch.

The total force generated can be assumed to act as a single force at the centre of pressure
of the rudder, more often referred to as the `centre of effort'.
The force F has two components:

A) `lift component' which is the transverse component of the rudder force,

causing the ship to turn;

B) `drag component' which is the longitudinal component of the rudder force.

The torque imposed by the water flow (which needs to be overcome by the
steering gear) is the force on the rudder multiplied by the distance from the
centre of effort to the axis of rotation.

If the rudder were assumed to rotate about

its leading edge and the distance to
the centre of effort was `b' as in the
sketch, the torque would

e F x b.
The position of the centre of effort from the leading edge varies with rudder
angle (α). Therefore, if the rudder has between 20% and 40% of the rudder area
forward of its axis of rotation, then at some rudder angle, the axis of rotation and
the centre of effort will coincide and the torque on the rudder will be zero. At this
angle the rudder is said to be `fully balanced'
STALL ANGLE

There is a maximum angle at which a conventional rudder is effective. This is due

to the stalling effect. At stall, the flow of water around the rudder becomes very
turbulent, with eddying on the aft side. At this point the lift force drops sharply
whilst the drag increases greatly. The rudder is then acting as a brake rather than
a turning device. Hydrodynamic work has shown this to be at approximately 35
Deg for an aerofoil shaped rudder.
RUDDER SHAPE

Although there are different types of rudder, their section, in plan view, is usually
of hollow, aerofoilshape.

Compared to an equivalent mass, single plate rudder, the hollow aerofoil shape
offers the following benefits:

Greater buoyancy, therefore less weight acting down on the steering gear, carrier
bearing etc.
More streamlined shape since all of the stiffening required can be fitted inside the
rudder;

Higher stall angle than a single plate rudder.

• Size and shape of rudder is governed by:

a. shape and type of stern b. area of rudder deemed necessary
c. capacity of steering gear d. service condition of ship
 Construction of Rudder

Modern rudders are of stream lined form and are fabricated from steel plate, the
plate size being stiffen by internal webs. Where the rudder is fully fabricated, one
side plate is prepared and the vertical and horizontal stiffening webs are welded
to this plate.

The other plate often called the closing plate is then welded to the internal webs
from the exterior only. This may be achieved by welding, flap bars to the webs
prior to fitting the closing plate, and then slot welding the plate.

The upper face is formed into a usually horizontal flat palm, which acts as
the coupling point for the rudder stock.

A lifting hole is provided in the rudder to enable a vertical inline lift of a rudder
when it is being fitted or removed. This lifting hole takes the form of a short piece
of tube welded through the rudder with doubling at the side and closing plate.
.
 Construction of Rudder
A drain hole is provided at the bottom of the rudder to check for water entry
when the ship is examined in dry dock.

To prevent internal corrosion the interior surfaces are suitably coated, and in
some cases the rudder may be filled with inert plastic foam.

The rudder is tested when complete under a head of water 2.45 M above the top
of the rudder.
Why Rudder Angle Limited to 35 Degrees ?

A. avoid stalling of rudder

B. avoid flow separation on low pressure side
C. avoid reduction of effectiveness of control
D. avoid sudden discontinuity of lift force on downstream surface of rudder OR
increase in drag force

Why Astern Turning Moment much less than Ahead ?

The propeller thrust adds to the force on the rudder when going ahead, but in
astern that thrust is lost.

The pivoting point (point about which ship turns) shifts aft to 1/3 rd the length
from aft. This reduces turning moment greatly.
Why Rudder is situated Aft of the Ship ?

To make use of propeller wash for thrust.

The pivoting point of ship is 1/6 to 1/3 rd of length of ship from bow, the greater the
perpendicular distance between point of action of force and pivoting point, the better
rudder movement.

Better protected at astern from damage.

Drag is reduced if rudder is situated aft.

1. Spade or Balanced Rudder:

A spade rudder is basically a rudder plate that is fixed to the rudder stock only at the
top of the rudder.

To maximise the rudder force at high rudder angles a spade-type rudder is usually
selected. This kind of a rudder can act as a “reaction blade” by deflecting propeller
outflow using its total movable area. Especially if equipped with a flap.

Disadvantage of the spade type rudder is thick profile and often unfavourable profile
shape from resistance and propulsion point of view. A thick profile results from a
rudderstock that has to have large diameter in order to carry the rudder forces.
***
When the fluid in the moving blades accelerates and leaves the blades at a higher
velocity than when it entered them, it imparts a jet reaction to the blades making
these reaction blades.
****

In balanced rudders, (which spade rudders generally are) the rudder stock is at such a
position such that 40 percent of the rudder area is forward of the stock and the
remaining is aft of it.
 The centre of gravity of the rudder will lie somewhere close to 40% of it’s chord length
from its forward end. If the axis of the rudder is placed near to this location, the torque
required to rotate the rudder will be much lesser than what is required to move it, had
the axis been placed at the forward end of the rudder.

So, the energy requirement of the steering gear equipment is reduced, therefore
lowering the fuel consumption of the ship
2.Unbalanced Rudders:

These rudders have their stocks attached at the forward most point of their span.
Unlike balanced rudders, the rudder stock runs along the chord length of the
rudder. The reason is simple. In this case, the torque required to turn the rudder is
way higher than what is required for a corresponding balanced rudder. So, the
topmost part of the rudder has to be fixed to the pintle so as to prevent it from
vertical displacement from it’s natural position. However, unbalanced rudders are
not widely used now.

Researchers and ship operators had found significant problems with the balanced
and unbalanced rudders. That is, in case there was a failure of the steering gear
mechanism while turning a ship. The rudder would remain still with it’s angle of
attack in that condition. The solution to this, was found in designing an optimized
Semi-Balanced Rudder.
3.Semi- Balanced Rudder:

on most ships are semi-balanced in the modern industry. The name semi-balanced
itself implies, that the rudder is partly balanced, and partly unbalanced.

A portion of the chord length from the top is un-balanced, and the remaining chord
length is balanced. Why?
The top part being un-balanced will help in acting as a structural support to the
rudder from vertical displacement. And the balanced part will render less torque in
swinging the rudder. As a result, a semi balanced rudder returns to the centreline
orientation on its own if the steering gear equipment fails during a turn
Pleuger Rudder:

Perhaps one of the most innovative rudder mechanisms you will ever come across.
Suppose you have a ship, too large to be manoeuvre in a basin with size
constraints, such that the ship cannot use it’s propeller during the manoeuvre.
This situation often arises in case of large ships operating in space constrained
basins, or in any case of low speed manoeuvres.

Pleuger rudder, has a smaller auxiliary propeller housed within it (which runs by a
motor). As this housing is mounted on the rudder itself, it generates a thrust
(which is smaller than what is generated by the ship’s main engine propeller) in a
direction that is oriented along the rudder, therefore allowing effective
manoeuvre in slow speed condition.

Such a rudder can be used in normal conditions also. Just that, in normal speeds,
the Pleuger is not operated. However, when the Pleuger is run, the main engine
propeller must not be operated simultaneously, which will otherwise cause the
Pleuger to be torn away.
 What is Rudder Drop or Rudder wear down and How it
measures?
"Rudder drop" - is actually the wear down of the rudder carrier bearing. It is
measured by a 'trammel gauge'. Trammel gauge is an L shaped instrument.

Basically a point marked on the rudder stock and another point is marked on the hull
inside the steering gear room(or Deck head girder). The distance between these
points is measured and recorded at the time of construction. The difference between
original and measured is called rudder drop or rudder wear down

Pads are welded to the hull and rudder. A clearance is given ( referred to as the
jumping clearance)

The jumping clearance is required to prevent damage to the steering gear, regardless
of rudder type. Therefore the maximum jumping clearance should always be less
than the clearance between tiller and steering gear. An increasing jumping clearance
can indicate that the bearing wear is excessive.

In general initial clearances should be around 0.050” for a 6” pintle to around 0.70”
for a 14” pintle. Far in service acceptable clearance we feel about 1/64" clearance per
1" of diameter of pintle up to 1% of diameter would be acceptable for another two
years of service.
What is Rudder Drop or Rudder wear down and How it
measures?
Dimension (1) must be substantially greater than jump clearance (4) to protect
steering gear from damage in the event of grounding .
 RUDDER PINTLES
Pintles on which the rudder turns in the gudgeons have a taper on the radius, and a
bearing length which exceeds the diameter.

Older ships may have a brass or bronze liner shrunk on the pintles which turn in lignum
vitae (hardwood) bearings fitted in the gudgeons.

Modern practice is to use synthetic materials like ‘Tufnol’ for the bearings, and in
some cases stainless steels for the liners. In either case lubrication of the bearing is
provided by the water in which it is immersed.

Until recently it has not been found practicable to provide oil-lubricated metal
bearings for the pintles, but Queen Elizabeth 2 has this innovation.

The most complex part of the rudder assembly is the hinges that allow the rudder to
turn. These hinges are made from pintles and gudgeons. Both are basically metal
‘straps’ that wrap around the hull and rudder. The pintle has a pin that extends down
from the bottom. The gudgeon has a tube that accepts the pin. When the pintle is
inserted into the gudgeon, it can turn freely and forms the hinge.
RUDDER PINTLES
 RUDDER STOCK
A rudder stock may be of cast or forged steel, and its diameter is determined in
accordance with the torque and any bending moment it is to withstand.

At its lower end it is connected to the rudder by a horizontal or vertical bolted coupling,
the bolts having a cross-sectional area which is adequate to withstand the torque
applied to the stock.

This coupling enables the rudder to be lifted from the pintles for inspection and service.
 RUDDER BEARING
The weight of the rudder may be carried partly by the lower pintle and partly by a
rudder bearer within the hull.

In some rudder types, for example, the spade type which is only supported within
the hull, the full weight is borne by the bearer.

A rudder bearer may incorporate the watertight gland fitted at the upper end of the
rudder trunk.

Most of the rudder’s weight may come onto the bearer if excessive wear down of the
lower pintle occurs, and the bearers illustrated have cast iron cones which limit their
wear down.
 RUDDER TRUNK
Rudder stocks are carried in the rudder trunk, which as a rule is not made
watertight at its lower end, but a watertight gland is fitted at the top of the trunk
where the stock enters the intact hull .

This trunk is kept reasonably short so that the stock has a minimum unsupported
length, and may be constructed of plates welded in a box form with the transom
floor forming its forward end.

A small opening with watertight cover may be provided in one side of the trunk
which allows inspection of the stock from inside the hull in an emergency.
 ASPECT RATIO
The rudder is used to steer the ship. The turning action is largely dependent on the
area of the rudder.

The ratio of the depth to width of a rudder is known as the aspect ratio and its value
is generally 2. High aspect ratio is used in large vessels, where depth is not a
constraint. Higher aspect ratio reduces the astern torque considerably.

Aspect Ratio = (Depth of Rudder / Width of Rudder)

The force on the rudder depend on:

Area of the rudder

The form of rudder
The speed of the ship
The angle of helm
 ASPECT RATIO
Force acting on the rudder, F = k A V²

where,
k = Constant depending upon the shape of the rudder, water density, rudder angle. It
varies from 570 to 610.
A = Area of rudder in m²
V = Speed of ship in m/s

F acts at a point M, measured from the leading edge of the rudder (where water
flow first touches rudder).

Area of rudder is 1/60 to 1/70 th of the immersed middle plane area of the vessel.
Faster vessels require less rudder area.
STERN TUBE
 STERN TUBE
Stern Tube
The propeller shaft enters the ship through the sterntube, which acts as the final
bearing and a watertight seal to the sea.

A sterntube forms the after bearing for the propeller shaft, and incorporates
the watertight gland where the shaft passes through the intact hull.

Two forms of sterntube are in use, that most commonly fitted having
waterlubricated bearings with the after end open to the sea.

The other type is closed at both ends and has metal bearing surfaces lubricated by
oil.

In the former type the bearings were traditionally lignum vitae strips and the tail
shaft (aft section of propeller shaft) was fitted with a brass liner, but Tufnol
strips are now often fitted.
 STERN TUBE
The latter form of sterntube is preferred in many ships with machinery aft, where
the short shaft is to be relatively stiff and only small deflections are tolerated..

Where this patent oil lubricated sterntube is fitted, glands are provided at both
ends to retain the oil and prevent the ingress of water, white metal (high lead
content) bearing surfaces being provided and the oil supplied from a reservoir.

Ref D.J.Eyres book page no 259 for fig.

 A-brackets and Bossing
Twin-screw vessels with their shafts set away from the centreline require support for
the shaft overhang as it leaves the shell. Bossing are often used to increase the vessel's
width and allow the shafts to remain within the hull while still retaining a streamlined
flow of water to the propellers. The shafting is protected and internal inspection is
possible with this arrangement. These bossings are symmetrical about the ship's
centreline are give rise to the term 'spectacle frame' because of their appearance from
aft of the vessel. Some modem constructions make use of A- bracket’s set out from
the hull to support the shafts. The final A-bracket in addition to acting as a bearing,
must support the weight of the propeller. Both bossings and A-frames are led into
the stem and solidly built into the structure with additional local stiffening where
require
A-brackets and Bossing
 PROPELLER
Most boats are driven by one or more screw propellers which move in spirals
somewhat like the threads on a screw. That is why the propeller is commonly referred
to as a screw. The most common propellers are built with three and four blades. The
propeller on a single-screw boat typically turns in a clockwise direction (looking from
aft forward) as the boat moves forward. Such screws are referred to as "right-
handed." On twin screw boats, the screws turn in opposite directions, rotating
outward from the centerline of the boat. The port screw is "left-handed" and turns
counter-clockwise. The starboard screw is "right-handed" and turns clockwise.

Propeller parts:

A propeller consists of blades and a hub. The area of the blade down at the hub is
called the root and its outer edge is called the tip

Propeller edge:

The edge of the blade that strikes the water first is the leading edge; the opposite
is the following edge. The diameter of the screw, the circle made by its tips and its
circumference, is called the tip circle. Each blade has a degree of twist from root to
tip called pitch.
Pitch:

Pitch is the distance a propeller advances in one revolution with no slip . Generally,
less pitch in the same diameter propeller makes it easier for the engine to reach its
preferred maximum RPM; thus, like putting a car in first gear, more power (and
sometimes more speed) is available. Similarly, (like third gear in a car) more pitch may
give more speed, but lower RPMs gives less power. Optimum performance is obtained
when pitch is matched to the optimum design speed (RPM) of the engine.
Why Full Astern Power is usually Less than Full Ahead Power ?

Propeller blade section is designed for maximum efficiency in ahead.

In astern direction, angle of attack is high on back of blade.

Propeller will absorb very little available power, severe eddying occurs on face.
Therefore, efficiency is very low.

Hence, if 80% of full ahead power is available for astern, then boosting it to 100%
will have minimal return in thrust from propeller.