Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Module 5
Where are we?
1 : Introduction to aircraft performance, atmosphere
2 : Aerodynamics, air data measurements
3 : Weights / CG, engine performance, level flight
4 : Turning flight, flight envelope
5 : Climb and descent performance
6 : Cruise and endurance
7 : Payload-range, cost index
8 : Take-off performance
9 : Take-off performance
10 : Enroute and landing performance
11 : Wet and contaminated runways
12 : Impact of performance requirements on aircraft design
2
Climb and descent performance
Climb
Introduction
Balance of forces
Rate of climb
Lift during climb
Climb gradient
Maximum rate of climb
Enroute climb speeds
Acceleration factor
Climb ceiling
Calculation of time, distance and fuel to climb
Certified climb performance data
3
Climb and descent performance
Climb - Introduction
In straight and level flight, T = D
Climb performance must be derived in terms of climb angle or climb gradient for take-off or go-around climbout
• Climb gradient (tangent of the climb angle) is used as the reference to establish climb performance
For enroute performance, rate of climb is used as the reference to establish climb performance
4
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Balance of Forces
W/g (dVg/dt)
5
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Rate of Climb
From summation of forces along flight path:
sin = (T-D)/W – (1/g) dVg/dt
6
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Rate of Climb (Cont’d)
The dimensionless term (V/g)(dVg/dh) is known as the
acceleration factor AF
r/c = [V(T-D)/W] / (1 + AF)
AF will be defined later for different types of climb profiles
In summary:
When the aircraft is climbing at constant ground speed (no accel.):
r/cunaccelerated = V(T-D)/W
7
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Lift during Climb
Balance of forces normal to flight path leads to
L – W cos = - (W/g) d/dt V
(W/g) d/dt V is the centrifugal acceleration due to changing the flight path at a rate d/dt
• d/dt is nearly zero at any point in the climb
• d/dt is assumed to be equal to zero during climb
cos is essentially equal to 1 for most conditions on commercial airplanes and we can assume that L = W
8
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Climb Gradient
9
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Climb Gradient (Cont’d)
Climb gradient is normally expressed as a percentage
• Example: tan = = 0.05 is equivalent to a gradient of 5 %
• A gradient of 5 % means that the aircraft climbs by 5 ft for every 100 ft traveled horizontally
If winds are present, the geometric climb gradient will be different from the value of calculated with the previous equations
geometric = r/c / Vg = (V/Vg) = (V/(V-Vwind))
Where Vwind is the wind speed (headwind is positive)
Note : r/c is not affected by wind
10
Climb and descent performance
11
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Maximum Rate of Climb
For a given weight and altitude condition, maximum rate of climb is obtained at the
speed VY where V(T-D) is greatest
• The speed for maximum rate of climb is slightly higher than the speed for maximum
excess thrust (T-D)
The true airspeed V for maximum rate of climb increases with altitude
• The aircraft must accelerate along the flight path to maintain the maximum rate of climb
12
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Enroute climb speeds
In practice, it is desirable to choose an easily flown climb speed
Climb at constant Mach number at higher altitudes where compressibility effects have a more important effect on climb performance
Transition from climb at constant CAS to climb at constant Mach is at a fixed altitude for a given CAS / M climb speed schedule
13
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Enroute climb speeds (Cont’d)
Operational considerations
• Operational requirements normally dictate a climb speed greater than 250 kts above 10,000 ft
• Aircraft is normally accelerated from 250 KCAS to a higher climb speed at 10,000 ft and the higher climb speed is maintained until
Mach reaches the climb Mach value
14
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Enroute climb speeds (Cont’d)
Manufacturers typically define various climb speed schedules in order to meet operational needs
Low speed climb speed schedule (e.g. 250 kts / M0.70) to minimize fuel burn and maximize range capability
High speed climb schedule (e.g. 250 kts / 320 kts / M 0.77) to minimize flight time
Normal speed climb schedule (e.g. 250 / 290 / M0.74) provides a compromise between fuel saving and flight time
15
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Enroute climb speeds (Cont’d)
Best r/c is achieved at a speed close to constant calibrated
airspeed at altitudes up to about 30,000 ft and at a speed close to
constant Mach at altitudes above 30,000 ft
16
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Acceleration factor
Transition alt.
17
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Acceleration factor (Cont’d)
When the acceleration factor (V/g)(dV/dh) is to be determined, the incremental altitude, dh, is a change in true altitude and
not pressure altitude
Since all performance data and performance calculations are based on pressure altitude, any pressure altitude increment
can be corrected to obtain the true altitude increment
h = hp (T/Tstd)
where :
T is the absolute average temperature over hp
Tstd is the absolute average temperature over hp under ISA conditions
• It must be noted that the same concept applies when geometric rate of climb is converted in pressure rate of climb (rate of change of
pressure altitude with time)
r/c pressure = r/c (Tstd/T)
18
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Acceleration factor (Cont’d)
19
Climb and descent performance
20
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Climb Ceiling
Climb ceiling is the lowest pressure altitude at which the rate of climb reaches a defined value
21
Climb and descent performance
22
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Calculation of Time, Distance, and Fuel
23
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Calculation of Time, Distance, and Fuel (Cont’d)
Calculation of time, distance and fuel to climb is calculated using a step by step integration process using a time increment basis or
a pressure altitude increment basis
Integration on a pressure altitude basis is more convenient and is described on the next slide
Climb thrust (T) and Fuel Flow (Wf) data is obtained from the engine manufacturer
24
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Calculation of Time, Distance, and Fuel (Cont’d)
1. Select hp1 and hp2
2. hpavg = (hp1 + hp2)/2
3. hp = hp2 - hp1
4. htrue = hp (T/Tstd)
5. Wavg (at hpavg) is assumed
6. V, T, D and AF are evaluated at hpavg
7. r/cavg = [V(T-D)/Wavg] / (1 + AF)
8. t = t2 – t1 = htrue / r/cavg
9. t2 = t1 + t
10. dist = V t
11. d2 = d1 + dist
12. Wfavg (Wf at hpavg) is evaluated from engine data
13. fuel = Wfavg t
14. fuel2 = fuel1 + fuel
15. W2 = W1 - fuel
25
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Calculation of Time, Distance, and Fuel (Cont’d)
• Notes on the calculation process
• Once the fuel burn fuel has been calculated, the average weight assumed for that step may be validated. Errors of up to 20 lb will not
significantly affect the results
• The size of hp selected is a function of the rate of climb and is usually in 1,000 ft increments or less
• Altitudes where there are discontinuities in the rate of climb must be used as discrete points for calculation (i.e. hp must be selected such
that hp2 = altitude with the discontinuity)
• If a level acceleration segment is included in the climb profile, a similar approach is used for the acceleration segment with the exception that:
• Integration is based on a step in speed
• Acceleration is calculated (instead of r/c) at the average speed
• If winds are present, r/c is not affected but the distance increments must be be calculated with the ground speed V g (dist = Vg t)
26
Climb and descent performance
Climb – Certified Climb Performance Data
Items covered in previous pages fell in the category of operational performance, i.e. not
certified performance
Certified Climb Performance data will be reviewed in another module and will include :
27
Climb and descent performance
Descent
Introduction
Rate of descent
Descent speed schedules
Cabin pressurization considerations
Emergency descent
Gliding flight
28
Climb and descent performance
Descent - Introduction
Descent analysis is analogous to climb analysis except that appropriate sign corrections are required
The methodology used for climb time, distance and fuel can also be used for descent time, distance and fuel
General considerations
• Minimum glide angle descents are flown at the speed for the best L/D, and that speed increases with weight
• Maximum rate of descent is obtained at maximum speeds and with maximum use of available drag devices
• For a given Mach / CAS descent speed schedule, heavier aircraft have lower rates of descent and lighter aircraft have
higher rates of descent
29
Climb and descent performance
Descent – Rate of Descent
Rate of descent (r/d) is calculated as follows:
Descent gradient d
d = [(D-T)/W] / [1 + (V/g)(dVg/dh)]
d = [(D-T)/W] / [1 + AF]
30
Climb and descent performance
Descent – Descent Speed Schedules
Same approach as for climb speeds
Manufacturer may provide descent data for more than one descent speed schedule in order to
enhance operational flexibility
31
Climb and descent performance
Descent – Cabin Pressurization Considerations
Cabin pressure altitude is typically equal to 8,000 ft when the aircraft is at the maximum certified altitude
During descent, cabin pressure altitude will be increased progressively
A maximum rate of change of cabin pressure equivalent to a rate of descent of 300 ft/min at sea level is normally
selected for passenger comfort
• Rate of change of pressure = 22.9 (lb/ft2)/min
For a descent from the maximum certified altitude to 1,500 ft, the time required for the cabin altitude to reduce from 8,000
ft to 1,500 ft pressure altitude is calculated as follows
• Pressure for cabin at 8000 ft = 1572 lb/ft2
• Pressure at 1,500 ft = 2,004.5 lb/ft2
• Minimum descent time = (2004.5 – 1,572) / 22.9 = 18.9 minutes
An idle descent may sometimes result in smaller descent time
• Partial power may have to be used during the initial part of the descent to increase descent time
32
Climb and descent performance
Descent – Cabin Pressurization Considerations
33
Climb and descent performance
Descent – Emergency Descent
May be carried out when it is necessary to descend to a lower altitude very quickly
• Minimum thrust
• High drag
• High speed
34
Climb and descent performance
Descent – Gliding flight
Gliding flight can be analyzed by setting T = 0 in the descent equations
d = (r/d)/V = D/W + (1/g) dVg/dt
d = (D/W) / [1 + (V/g)(dVg/dh)]
d = (CD/CL) / [1 + AF]
35
Climb and descent performance
Descent – Gliding flight (Cont’d)
Rate of descent (r/d) is calculated as follows:
r/d =- (dh/dt) = VD/W + (V/g) dVg/dt
36
Climb and descent performance