Aerodynamics: BS Mechanical Engineering 8 Semester

Aerodynamics
BS Mechanical Engineering
8th Semester
ME-417 Aerodynamics
CLO CLO Statement Learning PLO
level
1 Apply the concepts relevant to the dynamics of C3 1

incompressible, inviscid flow field to aerodynamic flows
2 Calculate aerodynamic parameters for incompressible flow C3 2

around airfoil and wing of finite span
3 Examine the propulsive characteristics of different flight C4 3

propulsion devices
4 Analyze how an airplane responds to drag, lift, thrust, and C4 3

power in relation to its performance
Reference Books
1. Fundamentals of Aerodynamics
Author(s): John D. Anderson
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Education
Year: 2016
2. Aircraft Performance and Design
Author(s): John D. Anderson
Publisher: McGraw-Hill Education 2
Year: 2010
Lecture 2: Today’s Learning Outcome
You will be able to:
• Know fundamentals variable in aerodynamics;
• Understand various sources of aerodynamic forces

and moments;
• Relate dimensionless aerodynamic/moment

coefficients with forces/moments;
• Derive the integral form of the force and moment

coefficients.
3
Aerodynamic Forces and Moments
The aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are

due to only two basic sources:
1. Pressure distribution over the body surface
2. Shear stress distribution over the body surface
Fig.1 Illustration of pressure and Fig.2 Resultant aerodynamic

shear stress on an aerodynamic force and moment on the body
surface
4
Cont……(Aerodynamic Forces and Moments)
The resultant R can be split into two components, two
sets of which are shown in Fig.3
L = Lift= Component of R perpendicular to V∞
D = Drag = Component of R parallel to V∞
c = Chord
Sometimes R is split into components

perpendicular and parallel to the chord as
shown in Fig.3
Fig.3 Resultant
aerodynamic force N=Normal force=component of R perpendicular to c
and the components
into which it splits A=Axial force=component of R parallel to c
5
The geometric relation between these two sets of components is , from
Fig.3,
Now lets us examine in more detail the integration of pressure and shear
stress distributions to obtain aerodynamic forces and moments.
Fig.4 Nomenclature for integration of pressure and shear stress distributions

over 2-D body surface
Now consider the 2D shape in Fig.4 as a cross section of an infinitely long
cylinder of uniform section. A unit span of such a cylinder is shown in Fig.5.
Fig.5 Aerodynamic force on an element of the body surface
Where dS= (ds)(1) as shown by shaded area.
We are interested in the contribution to the total normal force N’ and total axial
force A’ due to pressure and shear stress on the elemental area dS.
7
Examining both Fig. 4 and Fig.5, we see that the elemental normal and
axial forces acting on the elemental surface dS on the upper surface are
On the lower surface, we have
The total normal and axial forces per unit span are obtained by integrating
the above equations from L.E to T.E
8
The aerodynamic moment exerted on the body depends on the point
about which moments are taken. Consider the moments taken about the
leading edge as shown in the following figure:
The moment per unit span about leading edge on the elemental area dS on
the upper and lower surfaces are
After integrating the above equations from leading edge to trailing edge, we
obtain for the moment about the leading edge per unit span
9
As our discussion of aerodynamics progress, it will become clear that there
are quantities of an even more fundamental nature than aerodynamic
forces and moments themselves. These are dimensionless force and
moment coefficients defined as follows
For 2D bodies, it is convenient to denote the aerodynamic coefficients by

lowercase letters; e.g.,
10
Where reference area S=c(1)=c
Two additional quantities of immediate use are
Substituting these dimensionless coefficients in the equations defined earlier for

normal force, axial force and moment, we can obtain the following integral
forms for the force and moment coefficients:
11
• Calculate the drag coefficient for a given geometry

using concepts gained in last lecture;
• Understand and apply the concept of Center of

Pressure;
12
13
14
15
16
Example 2
17
Center of Pressure
18
Divergence of a Vector Field
Consider a vector field
The divergence of V is equal to . V and for different coordinate systems, we

have
19
• Differentiate between streamlines, pathlines and

streaklines;
• Develop equation of streamline for a given flow field;
• Understand the concept of angular velocity, vorticity,

and strain of fluid element.
20
Curl of Vector Field
Consider a vector field
The curl of a V is denoted by   V and in different coordinate systems, we

have
21
Governing Equations for Fluids in Motion
Continuity Equation
Momentum Equation
Energy Equation
22
Pathlines and Streamlines of a Flow
Fig. Pathlines for two different fluid

elements passing through the
same point in space
 In general, for unsteady flow, the pathlines for different fluid elements
passing through the same point are not the same.
23
Cont……(Pathlines and Streamlines of a
Flow)
 Streamline is a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of
the velocity vector at that point.
Fig. Streamlines
 We can visualize a pathline as a time-exposure photograph of a given fluid
element while streamline pattern is like a single frame of motion picture of
the flow.
 For steady flow, streamlines and pathlines are the same
24
Cont……(Pathlines and Streamlines of
a Flow)
Given the velocity field of a flow, how can we obtain the mathematical
equation for a streamline?
Streamline is a curve in space, and hence it can be described by the
equation f (x, y, z)= 0. How can we obtain this equation?
From the definition of vector cross product,
To put the above equation in more recognizable form, expand in Cartesian

coordinates
Differential equations for

streamlines 25
Cont……(Pathlines and Streamlines of
a Flow
Now we see the physical meaning of the differential equation of the
streamline. Consider a streamline in two dimensions.
26
Angular Velocity, Vorticity, and Strain
Consider an infinitesimal fluid element moving in a flow field. As it translates
along a streamline, it may also rotate, and in addition its shape may become
distorted.
Motion of fluid element

along a streamline
Rotation and distortion of
fluid element
Cont…..(Angular Velocity, Vorticity, and
Strain)
From the geometry of figure:
The above equation reduces to
Similarly we have
Now consider the angular velocities of lines AB and AC, defined as dθ1 /dt
and dθ2 /dt respectively. So we have
28
Strain)
By definition, the angular velocity of the fluid element as seen in the xy
plane is the average of the angular velocities of lines AB and AC. Let
denote this angular velocity. Therefore by definition,
Putting the value of dθ1 /dt and dθ2 /dt we have
For three dimensional space, the angular velocity is
29
Strain)
 Vorticity is another parameter which is very important in theoretical
aerodynamics.
 Vorticity is simply twice the angular velocity and is denoted by vector
Hence,
From here we can define another important result that
This leads to two important definitions:

1. If Rotational flow
2. If Irrotational flow
30
• Apply the concept gained in last lecture;
• Understand and apply the concept of circulation in

aerodynamics.
31
Strain)
Fluid elements in a rotational flow Fluid elements in an irrotational flow
If the flow is two dimensional (say in xy plane) then
If the flow is irrotational then, then , hence
Condition of irrotationality
for 2D flow
32
Strain)
Let the angle between sides AB and AC be denoted by κ. As the fluid

element moves through the flow field κ will change. In the above figure, at
time t, κ is initially 90 o. at time t+ Δt, κ has changed by the amount Δκ,
where
By definition, the strain of the fluid element as seen in the xy plane is the
change in κ. Hence
33
Strain)
In viscous flows, the time rate of strain is an important quantity. Denote the
time rate of strain by Ɛxy we have
In the yz and zx plane, by a similar derivation the strain is, respectively
Note the angular velocity, and time rate of strain depend solely on the velocity
derivatives of the flow field. These derivatives can be displayed in matrix form
as follows
34
Circulation
Consider a closed curve C in a flow field as show in the following figure.
The Circulation denoted by  , and is defined as
So, Circulation depends only on the velocity field and the choice of curve C.
35
Cont….(Circulation)
Why is circulation important?
Circulation is also related to the vorticity as follows.
From Stoke’s theorem
36
• Understand and comprehend the concept of stream

function and velocity potential;
• Identify the relationship between the two;
• Apply the concepts of stream function and velocity

potential for a given flow field.
37
Stream Function
Stream function for incompressible flow become
In general the concept of stream function is important for two primary

reasons. Assuming that ( x, y ) is known through the two dimensional flow
field then:
1.  = Constant gives the equation of a streamline.
2. The flow velocities can be obtained by differentiating the 
Velocity Potential
For an irrotational flow, we know that
Consider a following vector identity: if  is a scalar function, then
Comparing the above two equations, we see that
We denote  as the velocity potential. It is function of spatial coordinates.
39
Relationship Between Stream Function and
Velocity Potential
Consider a 2D, irrotational, incompressible flow in cartesian coordinates. For a
streamline  ( x, y ) =const. Hence, the differential of along the streamline is
zero;i.e,
Similarly for equipotential line, ( x, y ) =const. Along this line,
40
41
• Apply the concepts of stream function and velocity

potential for a given flow field.
• Calculate the velocity of fluid using Pitot tube.
42
Pitot Tube
43
• Derive equation for incompressible, inviscid flow in a

duct;
• Understand the working principle of various types of

low speed wind tunnels;
• Understand the concept of Pressure coefficient.
44
Incompressible inviscid flow in Duct
45
• Apply the concept relevant to low speed wind tunnel;
• Understand Airfoil nomenclature;
• Understand Airfoil Characteristics.
46
Incompressible Flow over Airfoil
What is Airfoil?
47
Airfoil Nomenclature
48
Airfoil Characteristics
49
• Apply the concept gained in the previous lecture to a

numerical problem involving airfoil;
• Understand the concept of Vortex flow;
• Define and understand the properties of Vortex Sheet.
50
51
• Define and understand the properties of Vortex Sheet.
• Comprehend Kutta condition used in theoretical

aerodynamics.
52
Vortex Sheet
Vortex Sheet
Vortex Filament
Now define    (s ) as the source

strength of vortex sheet per unit length
along S
Edge view of sheet 53
Cont…..(Vortex Sheet)
The small section of the vortex sheet of strengthds induces an infinitesimally
small velocity dV at point P, which is given by
We can also write the velocity potential.

The increment in velocity potential d  induced at point P by the elemental
vortex ds is
The velocity potential at P due to entire vortex sheet from a to b is
The circulation around the vortex sheet is the sum of the elemental vortices; i.e
b
   ds
a 54
Cont…..(Vortex Sheet)
Properties of Vortex Sheet
For a vortex sheet, there is a discontinuous change in the tangential component
of velocity across the sheet, whereas the normal component of velocity is
preserved across the sheet.
55
The Kutta Condition
1
2
1
2
1
2
56
Cont….(The Kutta Condition)
57
• Understand how nature generate circulation over

airfoil.
• Derive expression for thin airfoil theory.
58
Kelvin Circulation Theorem and Starting
Vortex
Questions: How does nature generate this circulation?
Does it come from nowhere, or is it somehow conserved over the

whole flow field?
59
Thin Airfoil Theory: The Symmetric
Airfoil
Vortex sheet on the camber Vortex sheet on the chord line
For the camber line to be a streamline, the component of velocity normal to the
camber line must be zero at all points along the camber line.
V ,n  w( s )  0
The expression for V , ncan be obtained as follows.
60
Cont….(Thin Airfoil Theory: The Symmetric
Airfoil)
At any point P on the camber line, where the slope of the camber line is dz / dx ,
the geometry of above figure yields
61
Airfoil)
Now we find an expression for w( x ) in terms of strength of the vortex sheet
as follows,
The velocity dw at point x induced by the elemental vortex at point  is
62
Airfoil)
Fundamental eq of thin airfoil theory
For symmetric airfoil
Let us transform  into θ via the following transformation:
63
Airfoil)
Hence for symmetric airfoil
cl  2 Lift coefficient
dcl
 2 Lift slope
d
cl
cm , le  Moment coefficient
4
64
Cambered Airfoil
Now we treat the cambered airfoil, we know that
After transformation, we obtain the following form
The solution of the above equation is
The coefficient Ao and An (n=1,2,3…) must be specific values in order that

the camber line is the streamline of the flow. To find these specific values put
equation B into equation A.
65
Cont….(Cambered Airfoil)
66
• Understand real case of flow over airfoil;
• Understand the various configuration of high lift

devices.
67
The Flow over a Airfoil--- The Real Case
68
Cont…(The Flow over a Airfoil--- The Real
Case)
69
Case)
70
Case)
71
Case)
72
Case)
73
Case)
74

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Aerodynamics

1 Apply the concepts relevant to the dynamics of C3 1

2 Calculate aerodynamic parameters for incompressible flow C3 2

3 Examine the propulsive characteristics of different flight C4 3

4 Analyze how an airplane responds to drag, lift, thrust, and C4 3

You will be able to:

• Know fundamentals variable in aerodynamics;

• Understand various sources of aerodynamic forces

• Relate dimensionless aerodynamic/moment

• Derive the integral form of the force and moment

The aerodynamic forces and moments on the body are

Fig.1 Illustration of pressure and Fig.2 Resultant aerodynamic

L = Lift= Component of R perpendicular to V∞

D = Drag = Component of R parallel to V∞

Sometimes R is split into components

Fig.4 Nomenclature for integration of pressure and shear stress distributions

Fig.5 Aerodynamic force on an element of the body surface

Where dS= (ds)(1) as shown by shaded area.

On the lower surface, we have

For 2D bodies, it is convenient to denote the aerodynamic coefficients by

Substituting these dimensionless coefficients in the equations defined earlier for

• Calculate the drag coefficient for a given geometry

• Understand and apply the concept of Center of

The divergence of V is equal to . V and for different coordinate systems, we

• Differentiate between streamlines, pathlines and

• Develop equation of streamline for a given flow field;

• Understand the concept of angular velocity, vorticity,

The curl of a V is denoted by   V and in different coordinate systems, we

Fig. Pathlines for two different fluid

To put the above equation in more recognizable form, expand in Cartesian

Differential equations for

Motion of fluid element

The above equation reduces to

Putting the value of dθ1 /dt and dθ2 /dt we have

For three dimensional space, the angular velocity is

From here we can define another important result that

This leads to two important definitions:

• Apply the concept gained in last lecture;

• Understand and apply the concept of circulation in

Fluid elements in a rotational flow Fluid elements in an irrotational flow

If the flow is two dimensional (say in xy plane) then

If the flow is irrotational then, then , hence

Let the angle between sides AB and AC be denoted by κ. As the fluid

In the yz and zx plane, by a similar derivation the strain is, respectively

The Circulation denoted by  , and is defined as

From Stoke’s theorem

• Understand and comprehend the concept of stream

• Identify the relationship between the two;

• Apply the concepts of stream function and velocity

In general the concept of stream function is important for two primary

Consider a following vector identity: if  is a scalar function, then

Comparing the above two equations, we see that

We denote  as the velocity potential. It is function of spatial coordinates.

Similarly for equipotential line, ( x, y ) =const. Along this line,

• Apply the concepts of stream function and velocity

• Calculate the velocity of fluid using Pitot tube.

• Derive equation for incompressible, inviscid flow in a

• Understand the working principle of various types of

• Understand the concept of Pressure coefficient.

• Apply the concept relevant to low speed wind tunnel;

• Understand Airfoil nomenclature;

• Understand Airfoil Characteristics.

• Apply the concept gained in the previous lecture to a