Earth Bulge

What is a Earth Bulge?

*Limits the range of communication methods that require a line of sight path, like
high frequency radio waves, microwaves or lasers*
 Introduction of Earth Bulge
**Let R be the radius of the earth and h be the altitude of the transmitter’s antenna. Line-
of-sight distance d of this station is given by the Pythagorean Theorem.
2 2 2
𝑑 = (𝑟 + ℎ) - 𝑟
Where;
d = the distance from two towers
r = radius from the earth core (6378 km)
h = height of the antenna

; d ≈ 1.23√ℎ
Introduction to Earth Buldge
Fresnel Zone
Fresnel Zone
Introduction to Fresnel Zone

*The term Fresnel Zone is

named after physicist
Augustin-Jean Fresnel
Introduction to Fresnel Zone

It composed of main signal and reflected signal

There are infinite number of Fresnel Zones
 Applications of Fresnel Zone
**Fresnel zone radius describes this reflection in relation to overall radio path
length.
Contour and Mapping
Introduction to Contour Lines
 How Contour Lines is important?
*Contour lines are an important way of showing the rise and fall of the land on a
map.
*Contour lines show all the places that are the same height above sea level. They
also tell us about the slope of the land. On a steep slope, the lines are close
together.
 Introduction to Mapping
*Mapping is the creation of maps, a graphic symbolic representation of the
significant features of a part of the surface of the Earth.
 Different kinds of Maps
Political map

Physical map

Topographic map

Climatic map

Economic or Resource map

Road map
 Contour Lines vs. Mapping
Topographic maps use contour lines to represent the terrain or relief of a region .
A rough definition of topographic mapping would be a map providing data on
terrain, forest cover, rover drainage, political divisions, roads, rails and other forms
of transport routes.
Contour mapping would be a subset of topographic mapping as topographic maps
show both natural and man made features while contour mapping shows only
natural features by means of contour lines.
Signal path profiling
 Introduction to Path profiling
In telecommunication, a path profile is a graphic representation of the physical
features of a propagation path in the vertical plane containing both endpoints of
the path, showing the surface of the Earth and including trees, buildings, and other
features that may obstruct the radio signal.

Profiles are drawn either with an effective Earth radius simulated by a parabolic
arc--in which case the ray paths are drawn as straight lines--or with a "flat Earth"-- in
which case the ray paths are drawn as parabolic arcs.
Sample of path profiling
Tower computations
Introduction to Tower Computations
Towers and antennas are often some of the tallest structures on the visible
landscape, especially in rural areas. Calculating the height of these towers and
antennas is relatively easy using basic trigonometric calculations if you know your
distance to the tower or antenna and the angle at which your eyesight makes a line
with the top of the tower, relative to the ground.