Chapter 7

TRANSDUCERS
 What is meant by Transducer?
• As a device that draws energy from the measured
medium and produces an output depending in some
way on the measured quantity.
• Device Which convert one form of signal into another
form preferably electrical form.
• In literature as a device which for the purpose of
measurement turn physical input quantities into
electrical output signal.
• As a device which converts non-electrical quantity
into electrical quantity.
 Transducer - Definition
• The device which converts the one form of
energy into another is known as the transducer.
• The process of conversion is known as transduction.
• Physical quantities like temperature, pressure, sound, etc. in to
electrical quantity
• The electrical transducer converts the mechanical energy into
an electric signal.
• The electrical signal may be voltage, current and frequency.
• The production of the signal depends on the resistive
inductive and capacitive effects of the physical input.
 Needs of Transducer
• It is quite difficult to determine the exact magnitude
of the physical forces like temperature, pressure, etc.
• But if the physical force is converted into an electrical
signal, then their value is easily measured with the
help of the meter.
• Electrical signal which can easily be handled and
transmitted for measurement.
 Parts of Transducer

• Sensing or Detector Element – It is the part of the

transducers which give the response to the physical
sensation. The response of the sensing element depends
on the physical phenomenon.
• Transduction Element – The transduction element
converts the output of the sensing element into an
electrical signal. This element is also called the secondary
transducer.
 Classification transducer

The transducer receives the measurand and gives a proportional

amount of output signal. The output signal is sent to the conditioning
device where the signal is attenuated, filtered, and modulated.
Primary and Secondary Transducer
• Primary Transducer – The transducer consists the
mechanical as well as the electrical devices. The
mechanical devices of the transducer change the
physical input quantities into a mechanical signal.
This mechanical device is known as the primary
transducers.
• Secondary Transducer – The secondary transducer
converts the mechanical signal into an electrical
signal. The magnitude of the output signal depends
on the input mechanical signal.
 Primary and Secondary Transducer
Example

Bourdon’s Tube Primary transducer

L.V.D.T  Secondary transducer.
 Passive and Active Transducer
• Passive Transducer – The transducer which requires the power
from an external supply source is known as the passive
transducer.
• They are also known as the external power transducer. The
capacitive, resistive and inductive transducers are the example
of the passive transducer.
• Active Transducer – The transducer which does not require the
external power source is known as the active transducer. Such
type of transducer develops theirs owns voltage or current,
hence known as a self-generating transducer.
• The output signal is obtained from the physical input quantity.
 Active Transducer - Example

• The above mention transducer is known as the accelerometer

which converts the acceleration into an electric voltage. This
transducer does not require any auxiliary power source for the
conversion of physical quantity into an electrical signal.
• Ex: Piezoelectric crystal. The crystal is sandwiched between the two
metallic electrodes, and the entire sandwiched is fastened to the
base. The mass is placed on the top of the sandwiched.
 Analog and Digital Transducer
• Analog Transducer – The Analog transducer
changes the input quantity into a continuous
function. The strain gauge, L.V.D.T,
thermocouple, thermistor are the examples of
the analogue transducer.
• Digital Transducer – These transducers
convert an input quantity into a digital signal
or in the form of the pulse. The digital signals
work on high or low power.
Transducer and Inverse Transducer
• Transducer – The device which converts the
non-electrical quantity into an electric
quantity is known as the transducer.
• Inverse Transducer – The transducer which
converts the electric quantity into a physical
quantity, such type of transducers is known as
the inverse transducer. The transducer has
high electrical input and low non-electrical
output.
Transducer Vs Inverse Transducer
 Factors Influencing the Choice of Transducer
(Selection Criteria of Transducer)
• Operating Principle –The operating principle may be resistive,
inductive, capacitive, optoelectronic, piezoelectric, etc.
• Sensitivity – It is enough for inducing the detectable output.
• Operating Range –must have wide operating ranges so that it
does not break during the working.
• Accuracy – It is essentials for the industrial applications.
• Errors – The errors are avoided by taking the input output
relations which is obtained by the transfer function.
• Loading Effect – The transducers have high input impedance
and low output impedance for avoiding the errors.
 Factors Influencing the Choice of Transducer
(Selection Criteria of Transducer)
• Environmental Compatibility –should be able to work in any specified
environments like in a corrosive environment. It should be able to work
under high pressure and shocks.
• Insensitivity to Unwanted Signals – The transducer should be sensitive
enough for ignoring the unwanted and high sensitive signals.
• Usage and Ruggedness – The durability, size and weight of the
transducer must be known before selecting it.
• Stability and Reliability – The stability of the transducers should be
high enough for the operation. And their reliability should be good in
case of failure of the transducer.
• Static characteristic – The transducer should have a high linearity and
resolution, but it has low hysteresis. The transducer is always free
from the load and temperature.
 Strain Gauge Transducers
• It is an example of a passive transducer.
• Strain  Change in electrical resistance in
wire.
• Used for measuring weight pressure
mechanical force, or displacement.
Strain Gauge Transducers
 Strain Gauge Transducers
The construction of a bonded strain gauge Fig. shows a fine-wire element
looped back and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the
member undergoing stress. A tensile stress tens to elongate the wire and
thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional area. The
combined effect is an increase in resistance as seen from Eq. (1)

L (1)
R
Where A
  = the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm
 L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square meters
 Strain Gauge Transducers
Gauge factor
As a consequence of strain two physical qualities are of particular interest: (1)
the change in gauge resistance and (2) the change in length. The relationship
between these two variables expressed as a ratio is called the gauge factor.
K. Expressed mathematically as

R / R
K  (2)
L / L
Where
 K = the gauge factor R/ R
K
 R = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain) G
Rchange in initial resistance in ohms
= the
 L = the initial length in meters (without strain)
=  L
the change in initial length in meters
G = Strain
 Types Transducers
• Bonded Strain Gauges
• Unbonded Strain Gauges
• Rosettes
• Semiconductor (Piezo-resistive) strain gauges
 Displacement Transducer
• Displacement, a vector quantity
• It Represents change in position of a point or body w.r.t
reference point.
• Used for the measurement of many derived quantities such as
force, stress, pressure, velocity and acceleration etc.
• Force, pressure, velocity etc. in terms of displacement.
TYPES OF DISPLACEMENT
Linear Displacement
• Linear motion measured in few microns to few centimetres.
Angular Displacement
• Rotational motion measured from a few seconds to 360o .
 Linear potentiometer
• Potentiometers are electrical devices which are a form of variable
resistance.

• Potentiometers are electrical devices which are a form of variable resistance.

• It consists of a sliding contact which moves over the length of a resistance
Element.
• This sliding contact connects to a plunger, which links to the object whose
displacement is to be measured.
Mathematical Expression for Potentiometer
Mathematical Expression for Potentiometer
 Angular Potentiometer
• Rotary or angular potentiometers measure
angular displacement .
 Linear Variable Displacement Transducer
(LVDT)
• A very basic transducer which is always useful in the field of
instrumentation
Principle of LVDT:
• LVDT works under the principle of mutual induction, and the
displacement which is a non-electrical energy is converted
into an electrical energy.
Construction of LVDT
 Construction of LVDT
• LVDT consists of a cylindrical former where it is surrounded by
one primary winding in the centre of the former and the two
secondary windings at the sides.
• The number of turns in both the secondary windings are
equal, but they are opposite to each other.
• i.e., if the left secondary windings is in the clockwise direction,
the right secondary windings will be in the anti-clockwise
direction, hence the net output voltages will be the difference
in voltages between the two secondary coil.
• The two secondary coil is represented as S1 and S2. Esteem
iron core is placed in the centre of the cylindrical former
which can move in to and fro motion as shown in the figure.
 Working of LVDT – Case 1
• On applying an external force which is the displacement, if the
core reminds in the null position itself without providing any
movement then the voltage induced in both the secondary
windings are equal which results in net output is equal to zero
Esec1- Esec2=0
 Working of LVDT – Case 2
• When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core
tends to move in the left hand side direction then the emf
voltage induced in the secondary coil is greater when
compared to the emf induced in the secondary coil 2.
• Therefore the net output will be Esec1-Esec2
 Working of LVDT – Case 3
• When an external force is applied and if the steel iron core
moves in the right hand side direction then the emf induced
in the secondary coil 2 is greater when compared to the emf
voltage induced in the secondary coil 1
• Therefore the net output will be Esec2-Esec1
CAPACITIVE DISPLACEMENT TRANSDUCERS
 Temperature Measurement
• What is meant by Temperature?
Temperature is a measure of how hot or cold
something is; specifically, a measure of the average
kinetic energy of the particles in an object, which is a
type of energy associated with motion.
Desirable Temperature Sensor Characteristics
 Examples of Temperature sensor
• Thermistor ( Thermal Resistor)
• Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Thermocouple
• Pyrometers
 Thermistor
Thermistor – a resistor whose resistance changes
with temperature
• Resistive element is generally a metal-oxide
ceramic containing Mn, Co, Cu, or Ni
• Packaged in a thermally conductive glass bead
or disk with two metal leads
• Suppose we have a “1 kΩ thermistor”
• What does this mean?
• At room temperature, the resistance of the
thermistor is 1 kΩ
• What happens to resistance as we increase
temperature?

41
 Thermistor
(Temperature Vs Resistance)
• Most materials exhibit a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC)
– Resistance drops with temperature!
 Resistive Temperature Detector (RTD)
• Two terminal device
• Usually made out of platinum
• Positive temperature coefficient
• Tends to be linear
• R = R0(1+α)(T-T0) where T0 = 0oC
R0 = 100 Ω, α = 0.03385 Ω/ Ω oC
• At 10oC, R = 100(1+0.385)(10) = 103.85
Ω
• They are best operated using a small
constant current source
• Accuracy of 0.01 oC SOURCE: http://www.omega.com/prodinfo/images/RTD_diag1.gif

• EXPENSIVE!
ENGINEERING 80 Temperature Measurements 43
 Platinum Resistance Thermometer
(Platinum Resistance Temperature Detector)
• It uses platinum for determining the temperature.
• It works on the principle that the resistance of
platinum changes with the change of temperature.
• The thermometer measures the temperature over
the range of 200°C to1200°C.
• The platinum is an unreactive metal and can easily be
drawn into fine wires. Because of these properties
of platinum, it is used as a sensing element in
thermometer.
 Working of RTD
• The resistance of platinum increases linearly with the
temperature, and this property of the metal is used
for measuring the temperature.
• The resistance of the platinum is measured by
passing the alternating or direct current through it.
• Because of the current, the voltage induces across
the metal which measures through the voltmeter.
• The reading of voltage is converted into the
temperature with the help of the calibration
equation.
 Construction of RTD
• The platinum sensing coil is enclosed
inside a bulb which is either made of
glass or Pyrex. The insulator deposit
on the surface of the glass tube is also
used for sensing the temperature.
• The double wire of the platinum is
wound on the strip of the mica. Here
the double wires are used for reducing
the inductive effect. The mica is used
as an insulator, and it is placed at the
ends of the tube.
 Construction of RTD
• The Ebonite cap is placed at the open end of the tube.
• The terminals of the copper wire are joined together
with the help of the thick copper lead.
• The other end of the copper leads are joined to the
terminal AB fitted in the Ebonite cap.
• For reducing the effect of copper wire resistance on
the thermometer, the two similar copper wires are
connected to the upper-end terminals called CD.
• These wires are called the compensating lead.
 Thermocouple
• Thermocouple – a two-terminal element consisting of two dissimilar
metal wires joined at the end

SOURCE: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/e/ed/Thermocouple_(work_diagram)_LMB.png

ENGINEERING 80 Temperature Measurements 48

 Measuring Temperature
• To measure temperature using a thermocouple, you can’t just
connect the thermocouple to a measurement system (e.g.
voltmeter)
• The voltage measured by your system is proportional to the
temperature difference between the primary junction (hot
junction) and the junction where the voltage is being
measured (Ref junction).
Cold junction Compensation
Types of Thermocouple
 Photoelectric Transducer
(Photo sensitive devices)
• The photoelectric transducer converts the light energy
into electrical energy.
• It is made of semiconductor material.
• The photoelectric transducer uses a photosensitive
element, which ejects the electrons when the beam of
light absorbs through it.
• The discharges of electrons vary the property of the
photosensitive element. Hence the current induces in
the devices. The magnitude of the current is equal to
the total light absorbed by the photosensitive element.
 Photoelectric Transducer
(Photo sensitive devices)
• The photoelectric transducer absorbs
the radiation of light which falls on
their semiconductor material. The
absorption of light energises the
electrons of the material, and hence
the electrons start moving. The mobility
of electrons produces one of the three
effects.
– The resistance of the material changes.
– The output current of the semiconductor
changes.
– The output voltage of the semiconductor
changes.
Classification of Photoelectric Transducers

• Photoemissive cell
• Photoconductive Cell
• Photo-voltaic cell
• Photodiode
• Phototransistor
 Photoemissive cell
• The Photoemissive cell converts the photons into electric energy.
• It consists the anode rod and the cathode plate.
• The anode and cathode are coated with a Photoemissive material
called cesium antimony.
• When the radiation of light fall on cathode plates the electrons
starts flowing from anode to cathode. Both the anode and the
cathode are sealed in a closed, opaque evacuated tube. When the
radiation of light fall on the sealed tube, the electrons starts
emitting from the cathode and moves towards the anode.
• The anode is kept to the positive potential. Thus, the photoelectric
current starts flowing through the anode. The magnitude of the
current is directly proportional to the intensity of light passes
through it.
Photoemissive cell
 Photoconductive Cell
• The photoconductive cell converts the light energy into an electric current.
It uses the semiconductor material like cadmium selenide, Ge, Se, as a
photo sensing element.
• When the beam of light falls on the semiconductor material, their
conductivity increases and the material works like a closed switch. The
current starts flowing into the material and deflects the pointer of the
meter.
 Photo-voltaic cell
• The photovoltaic cell is the type of active transducer.
• The current starts flowing into the photovoltaic cell when the load is
connected to it.
• The silicon and selenium are used as a semiconductor material.
• When the semiconductor material absorbs heat, the free electrons of the
material starts moving.
• This phenomenon is known as the photovoltaic effect.
• The movements of electrons develop the current in the cell, and the current is
known as the photoelectric current.
 Photodiode
• The photodiode is a semiconductor material which converts
the light into the current. The electrons of the semiconductor
material start moving when the photodiode absorbs the
light energy. The response time of the photodiode is very less.
It is designed for working in reverse bias.
 Phototransistor
• The phototransistor is a device that converts the light energy into
electric energy. It produces both the current and voltage.
• It is a bipolar device which is made of semiconductor material.
• The semiconductor material is enclosed in an opaque container in
which the light easily reaches to the photosensitive element.
• The element absorbs light, and the current starts flowing from base
to emitter of the device. This current is converted into the voltages.
 Magnetic Measurements
(Flux meter)
• Measurement of magnetic flux- Flux meter.
• It is the advanced form of the ballistic galvanometer which
has certain advantages like the meter has low controlling
torque and heavy electromagnetic damping.
 Construction of Flux Meter
• Meter has a coil which is freely suspended by the
help of the spring and the single silk thread.
• The coil moves freely between the poles of the
permanent magnet.
• The current enters into the coil with the help of the
helices which is very thin and made from the
annealed silver strips.
• This current reduces the controlling torque to the
minimum value.
 Operation of Flux Meter
• The terminals of the flux meter are
connected across the search coil.
• The flux linking with the coil is varied by
either removing it from the magnetic
field or by reversing the field of the
magnet.
• The change of the flux induces the
electromotive force in the coil.
• This emf induces the current in the
search coil and sends it through the flux
meter.
• Because of the current, the pointer of
the flux meter deflects, and their
deflection is directly proportional to the
change in the value of flux linkages.
 Operation of Flux Meter
• As, the variation of the flux linkages reduces,
coil stop moving because of their high
electromagnetic damping.
• The high electromagnetic damping is because
of the low resistance circuit between the
fluxmeter and the search coil.
 Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Portable.
• The scale of the fluxmeter is calibrated in Weber
meters.
• The deflection of the coil is free from the time
taken by the flux to change.
Disadvantages
• it is less sensitive and accurate as compared to
other flux meter.