UNIT -1

MODERN PHYSICS
 Overview
• The study of the spectrum of black body radiation and
significance of Quantum theory
• The study of photo electric effect, Compton effect and
their significance
• The study of dual nature of radiation and de- Broglie
concept of matter waves
• The phase velocity and group velocity equations and the
relation between phase and group velocity
• Expression for de- Broglie wavelength from group
velocity
Black Body Radiation

• Blackbody radiation" or
"cavity radiation" refers to
object or system which an
absorbs all radiation
incident upon it and re-
radiates energy only
when heated to a proper
temperature.
 • The black body radiation is characteristics of its temperature.
• When a graph of energy density is plotted against wavelength ,
curves as shown in figure-1 is obtained.

• The energy is not uniformly

distributed in the spectrum of
black body radiation.
Energy density

• At a given temperature, the

energy density increases with
wave length and becomes
maximum for particular
wavelength, then decreases
as wavelength increases.
• As temperature increases,
intensity of radiation
represented by peak of the
curve shifts towards shorter
wavelength region.

Spectrum of Black Body radiation or radiation curves

LAWS OF BLACK BODY RADIATION

• Stefan’s law of Radiation

• Wien’s Law of energy distribution
• Rayleigh-Jeans Law of energy distribution
• Planck’s Law of Radiation
1.The Stefan - Boltzmann law

• Stefan - Boltzmann law states that the

energy radiated by a blackbody per second per
unit area is proportional to the fourth power of
the absolute temperature,

E = σ T4 , where σ is the Stefan’s constant.

 2. Wien’s Law of Radiation
• Wien’s Law explains the energy distribution only in
shorter wavelengths & fails to explain the energy
distribution in longer wavelength region.
λm T = constant, where λm is the
wavelength with greatest energy density.

3. Rayleigh-Jeans Law of Radiation

The energy density according to Rayleigh Jeans law is,
8 kT
E λ dλ  dλ
λ 4

• According to this law, as wavelength decreases, energy density

increases enormously deviating from the experimental observations.
• This law holds good only for longer wavelengths region and fails to
explain energy distribution in shorter wavelength region.
4. Planck's law of Radiation
• Planck's law describes the spectral radiance of
electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths from
a black body at temperature T as a function of
frequency n. It could explain the complete
spectrum.
The failure of classical wave theory led Max Planck
to consider light emission to a quantum
phenomenon, instead of a wave phenomenon.
• Radiation can be emitted or absorbed only in
discrete units called quanta.
• Each unit corresponds to energy, E = hn.
h is Planck’s constant (6.626 x 10-34 Js). Max Planck

Planck’s radiation formula is,

8π hν 3
E ν dν  hν
dν
c 3 (e kt
 1)
Ultraviolet catastrophe

We have the Rayleigh Jeans law of radiation as,

8 kT
E λ dλ  dλ
λ 4

For smaller wavelengths, the energy density goes on increasing. This

contradicts the observations that the energy density goes on
decreasing for very small wavelengths at constant temperature. This
is known as Ultraviolet catastrophe.
Energy distribution curves

Rayleigh-Jeans Law
Planck’s law

El dl

Wien’s law

l
RAYLEIGH-JEANS CURVE AGREES WITH PLANCK
RADIATION FORMULA FOR LONG WAVELENGTHS.
Reduction of Planck’s law to Wien’s law and Rayleigh
Jeans law
(i) For shorter wavelengths, n = c/l is large.
When n is large, ehn/kT is very large.
ie., ehn/kT >> 1.

Hence (ehn/kT – 1) = ehn/kT = ehc/lkT ……………..(2)

Eqn 2 in Planck law gives,

Uldl = 8πhc/l5[ 1/ehn/kT – 1] dl

Uldl = 8πhc/l5[ 1/ehc/lkT] dl

C1l5e-C2/lT dl

where C1= 8πhc and C2 = hc/k

Assignment: Reduction of Planck’s law to Rayleigh Jeans

law
Questions
1. Give a brief account of black body radiation and Planck’s radiation
law leading to quantization of energy.
2. Explain the energy distribution in the spectrum of a black body.
Give an account of attempts made by various laws to explain the
spectrum.
3. What is Planck’s radiation law? Show how Wien’s law and Rayleigh
Jeans law can be derived from it.

Problem
1. Estimate the surface temperature of the Sun assuming that the
maximum energy is radiated by the sun at a wavelength of 5800 Ǻ.
By Wien’s law,
λm T = constant = 2.898x10-3 mK

T = 2.898x10-3 mK / 5800 x10-10 = 4996.55K

 Photoelectric Effect
• The emission of electrons from metal surface, when light
or any other radiation of suitable frequency falls on it is
called Photo electric emission
• The emitted electrons are called photo electrons and
resultant current is known as photoelectric current. This
phenomenon is called photo electric effect.
 Experimental study of Photoelectric effect
The apparatus consists of evacuated quartz tube,
with two metal plates Emitter and Collector. E
and C are connected to negative and positive
terminals of the battery.

Due to the absence of external light, there will be

no current in the circuit. When light falls (with a
minimum frequency called Threshold
frequency) on plate E, galvanometer shows a
deflection and current flows in the circuit. This
shows that when light falls on the metal
surface, it emits electrons. This is photo
electric current.

Factors affecting the emission of electrons

and their K.E. are the potential difference
between the two plates E and C,
the intensity of incident radiation, the
frequency of incident radiation, the nature
of photo metal used.
Laws of photo electric effect
• The photo electric current is directly proportional to intensity of incident
radiation.
• There exists a certain minimum frequency of the incident light to cause
photo electric emission, the light having frequency less than this cannot
cause photo electric emission. This frequency is different for different
metals and is called threshold frequency.
• The kinetic energy of photo electrons depends on the frequency of incident
radiation and not on the intensity. The number of photo electrons increases
as frequency increases.
• The rate of emission of photo electrons from photo cathode is independent
of its temperature. This shows that photoelectric phenomenon is different
from thermionic effect.
• The photo electric effect is instantaneous phenomenon the time lag
between incident light and emission of electron is less than 10-8sec.
• The stopping potential V, is the retarding potential required to reduce the
current to zero is known as the stopping potential. It is directly proportional
to frequency of incident light and independent of intensity. The stopping
potential is different for different metals.

Photo electric effect signifies particle nature of radiation (light waves)

Einstein’s Photo Electric Equation
• Einstein Photon theory of light was proposed in
1905.
• Light rays travel through space as indivisible
packets of energy called photons or quanta
having energy hn.
• Work function (W = hno): The minimum energy
required to remove an electron from the metal
surface.
• Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation:
E = W + ½ mv2max
hn = hno + ½ mv2max
h(nno) = ½ mv2max = eV, where V is stopping
potential. So for nno, there will be no emission.
 COMPTON EFFCT
• When a monochromatic
beam of very high
frequency such as x-rays
or Gamma rays is scattered
by a substance, the
scattered radiation found to
contain two components
– one having same
frequency or wavelength
as that of incident
radiation ---- unmodified
radiation
– the other having lower
frequency or longer
wavelength than incident
radiation ----- modified
radiation.
– This is called Compton
scattering,
• When photon of energy hν strikes the electron at rest,
photon transfers some of its energy to electron,
therefore photon losses its energy, hence its
frequency reduces and the scattered photon makes an
angle  with the incident direction
• During this process, the electron gains kinetic energy
and recoils with certain velocity.

Compton Shift
h
l 'l  (1  cos  )
m0 c
Physical significance of Compton Effect

• The Compton effect signifies particle

nature of x rays.

Summary of Lesson-2
• Compton scattering is different from
classical scattering
• Compton effect also signifies Particle
nature of radiation .
 Wave - particle duality: Light

• Does light consist of particles or waves?

Can be explained in Can be explained in terms
Phenomenon
terms of waves. of particles.
Reflection
Refraction
Interference
Diffraction
Polarization
Photoelectric
effect
de-Broglie concept of matter waves
Characteristics of Matter Waves
• Matter waves are the waves associated with the moving particle
• The lighter the particle larger the wavelength.
• Smaller the velocity of particle larger the wavelength.
• The amplitude of the matter wave at a given point determines the
probability of finding the particle at that point at a given instant of
time.
The wavelength of a particle is given by,
l = h/p = h/mv

Summary of Lesson
The material particle in motion exhibits wave like properties.
The de - Broglie waves are pilot waves and electro-magnetic waves
Wave properties and particle properties can not appear together.
The dual nature of radiation has put position of particle uncertain.
 de-Broglie wavelength of a free particle
For a free particle, total energy is same as its kinetic energy
given by,
E = ½ mv2
= m2v2/2m (But p = mv)
= p2/2m
Hence,

p = √2mE
By de Broglie hypothesis,
l = h/p
Therefore, l = h/√2mE = h/√2meV (since E =
eV) where V is the accelerating potential on an electron.
Substituting the constants, we get, l = 12.27/√V Ǻ.
Problem
1. Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a
bullet of mass 5 gm moving with a
velocity 20km/h.
We have h = 6.62x10-34Js
m = 5gm=5x10-3 kg
v = 20km/hr = 5.556m/s
l  h/mv = 2.38x10-32 m.
Assignment
2. Calculate the wavelength associated with electrons whose speed is
0.01 times the speed of light.
 Summary
• Any material particle in motion exhibits
wave like properties.
• The matter waves are generated due to
motion of the particle not by the charge
carried by them.
• The wave properties and particle
properties do not appear together.
• Dual nature of radiation has put the
position of the particle uncertain.
Phase velocity
If a point is imagined to be marked on a travelling wave, then it becomes a
representative point for a particular phase of the wave and the velocity with
which this point is transported owing to the motion of the wave is called
phase velocity.
The phase velocity is given in terms of the wave's angular frequency ω and wave vector
k by,

Group velocity
The group velocity of a wave is the velocity with which the variations in the
shape of the wave's amplitude (known as the modulation or envelope of the
wave) propagate through space. The group velocity is defined by the equation,

vg is the group velocity;

ω is the wave's angular frequency;
k is the wave number.
Phase velocity or wave velocity

When a monochromatic wave (wave of single wave length) travels through

the medium, its velocity of advancement through medium is called
phase velocity or wave velocity.

Consider a wave traveling along positive direction of x axis, it is

represented by,

y = a sin (wt – kx)

Where a is amplitude and k is propagation constant = 2π/ λ
and (wt – kx) = phase of wave motion.

When phase is constant, (wt – kx) = constant.

Differentiating, w - k d x /dt = 0

dx/dt = ω/k

dx/dt = phase velocity, vphase = ω/k

Group velocity
Let us consider two travelling waves of same amplitude, but of slightly different
wavelengths and frequencies. The two waves can be represented by the
following two equations.
y1 = A sin (ωt – kx) ……………………1
y2 = A sin [(ω+Δω)t – (k+Δk)x] ……………………2
where y1 and y2 are displacements in the direction normal to the direction of
propagation at the instant t, A is amplitude, ω is the angular frequency, k is the
wave number and x is common displacement at the instant t.
The resultant displacement is y = y1 + y2
Therefore,
y = A sin (ωt – kx) + A sin [(ω+Δω)t – (k+Δk)x]
Using the identity, sin a + sin b = 2 cos [(a-b)/2)]sin[(a+b)/2]
We get,
y = 2A cos {(Δω/2)t – (Δk/2) x} sin (ωt – kx). …………………..3
Comparing equation 1 and 3, the amplitude is cosine term (2A cos {(Δω/2)t –
(Δk/2) x} ), which is not a constant but varies as a wave. The velocity with it is
transmitted is group velocity given by,
vgr = (Δω/2)/(Δk/2) = Δω/Δk.
In the limit,
Δω/Δk tends to dω/dk

Therefore, vgr = dω/dk.

Relation between group velocity and phase velocity
We have the equations for group velocity and phase velocity as follows.
vgr = dω/dk……………………..1
vphase = ω/k……………………..2
Therefore, ω = kvphase
But,
vgr = dω/dk = d(kvphase)/dk.
= vphase + k d(vphase)/dk.
Therefore, vgr = vphase + k d{vphase)/dλ}{dλ/dk} ………………3
We know that, k = 2π/ λ

Differentiating, dk/dλ = -2π/ λ2 or dλ/dk = -λ2/2π.

We can write, kdλ/dk = (2π/λ)( –λ2/2π) = -λ

Substituting in eqn 3,

vgr = vphase – λ d{vphase)/dλ}.

Relation between group velocity and particle velocity
We have,
vgr = dω/dk…………………………..1
But, ω = 2πν = 2πE/h ………………………2
dω = (2π/h)dE……………………………3
We have,
k = 2π/λ = 2πp/h………………..4
Therefore,
dk = (2π/h)dp…………………..5
Dividing eq. 3 by 5,
dω/dk = dE/dp, …………………..6
But E = p2/2m,
dE/dp = p/m………………….7
Using eq.7 in 6,
We get,
dω/dk = p/m = mvparticle/m = vparticle
Hence, vgroup = vparticle
 Relation between velocity of light, group velocity and phase velocity

We know that,
vphase = ω/k
Substituting from {ω = 2πν = 2πE/h and k = 2π/λ =
2πp/h}
vphase = E/p = mc2/mvparticle = c2/vparticle =
c2/vgroup.

Hence vphase . Vgroup = c2.

Assignment
Derive the expression for deBroglie wavelength from group
velocity.
Problems

1. A particle of mass 0.5 MeV/c2 has kinetic

energy 100 eV. Find its de Broglie
wavelength, where c is the velocity of light.
Given: m = 0.5 MeV/c2 = 0.5 x 106 eV/c2 =
0.5 x 106 x 1.602 x 10-19/(3x108)2 = 8.9x
10-31 Kg.
E = 100 eV = 100x1.6x10-19 J

de Broglie wavlength = λ = h/√2mE = 1.24x 10-10 m.

2. Compare the energy of a photon with that of a neutron
when both are associated with wavelength of 1Ǻ, given
that the mass of neutron is 1.678 x 10-27 Kg.
Given: λ1 = 10-10 m
λ2 =10-10 m
m = 1.678 x 10-27 Kg
E1/E2 = ?
E1 = hν = hc/ λ1 = 6.63x 10-34 x 3 x 108/ 10-10
= 1.989x10-15 J = 1.989x 10-15 x 6.24x 1018 eV
= 12411 eV.
We have, l = h/√2mE
So, E2 = h2/2mλ22 = 1.3121x 10-20 J
= 1.3121 x 10-20 x 6.24x 1018 eV = 0.08 eV.
Therefore, E1/E2 = 12411/0.08 = 1.5 x 105.
Assignment

A particle of mass 0.65 MeV/c2 has a KE 80

eV. Find the de Broglie wavelength, group
velocity and Phase velocity of the de
Broglie wave.

Ans: λ = 1.218 x 10-10 m.

v group = 4.7 x 106 m/s.
vphase = 1.913 x 1010 m/s.
 Summary
• The emission and absorption of energy is not continuous,
but discrete.
• A particle in motion is associated with waves called matter
waves.
• Matter has dual characteristics i.e. it exhibits both wave
and particle properties.
• Both wave properties and particle properties of moving
objects can not appear together at same time.
• de-Broglie waves are pilot waves not electromagnetic
waves.
• The phase velocity is purely mathematical concept.
• The moving particle is described in terms of wave packet.
• The dual nature of radiation has put position of particle
uncertain.