Presentation of Carbon and Alloy Steels

Carbon and Alloy Steels
1/16/2019 Carbon and Alloy Steels 1

Outlines
 Designation of Carbon and Low-Alloy
Steels
 Structure of Plain Steel
 Alloy Steels
 Characteristic of Alloying Elements
 Influence of Alloying Elements on Steel
Microstructure

Outlines
 Concept of Hardening
 How To Harden Steel
 High-Strength Structural and High-
Strength Low-Alloy Steels
 Quench hardening of steel
 Alloyed tool and die steels
 Special Steels

Designation of Carbon and Low-Alloy
Steels
 A designation is the specific identification of
each grade, type, or class of steel by a
number, letter, symbol, name, or suitable
combination
 Grade is used to denote chemical composition;
 Type is used to indicate deoxidation practice; and
 Class is used to describe some other attribute, such as
strength level or surface smoothness.

SAE-AISI Designations
 SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers )
 AISI (American Iron and Steel Institute )
 SAE-AISI system is the most widely used system
for designating carbon and alloy steels.
 As a point of technicality, there are two separate
systems, but they are nearly identical and have
been carefully coordinated by the two groups.
 The SAE-AISI system is applied to semi-finished
forgings, hot-rolled and cold-finished bars, wire
rod and seamless tubular goods, structural
shapes, plates, sheet, strip, and welded tubing
steels.
Carbon steels
 Carbonsteels contain less than 1.65%
Mn, 0.60% Si, and 0.60% Cu; they
comprise the lxxx groups in the SAE-
AISI system and are subdivided into four
distinct series as a result of the
difference in certain fundamental
properties among them.

Carbon steels
 Designations for merchant quality steels include the prefix M.
 Carbon steel designation with the letter B inserted between the
second and third digits indicates the steel contains 0.0005 to
0.003% B for enhanced hardenability.
 The letter L inserted between the second and third digits
indicates that the steel contains 0.15 to 0.35% Pb for enhanced
machinability.
 Resulfurized carbon steels of the 11xx group and resulfurized
and rephosphorized carbon steels of the 12xx group are
produced for applications requiring good machinability.
 Steels that having nominal manganese contents of between 0.9
and 1.5% but no other alloying additions now have 15xx
designations in place of the 10xx designations formerly used.

Alloy steels
 In the AISI-SAE system of designations, the first two
digits of the designation indicate the major alloying
elements. The amount of carbon, in hundredths of a
percent, is indicated by the last two (or three) digits.
 For alloy steels that have specific hardenability
requirements, the suffix H is used to distinguish these
steels from corresponding grades that have no
hardenability requirement.
 As with carbon steels, the letter B inserted between
the second and third digits indicates that the steel
contains boron.
 The prefix E signifies that the steel was produced by
the electric furnace process.

HSLA Steels
 Several grades of HSLA steel are described
in SAE Recommended Practice J410. These
steels have been developed as a
compromise between the convenient
fabrication characteristics and low cost of
plain carbon steels and the high strength of
heat-treated alloy steels. These steels have
excellent strength and ductility as rolled.

AISI Composition or SAE Number
 10xx Plain carbon steels
 11xx Plain carbon (resulfurized for machinability)
 13xx Manganese (1.5-2.0%)
 23xx Nickel (3.25-3.75%)
 25xx Nickel (*4.75-5.25%)
 31xx Nickel (1.10-1.40%), chromium (0.55-0.90%)
 33xx Nickel (3.25-3.75%), chromium (1.40-1.75%)
 40xx Molybdenum (0.20-0.30%)
 41xx Chromium (0.40-1.20%), molybdenum
(0.08-0.25%)
 43xx Nickel (1.65-2.00%), chromium (0.40-0.90%),
molybdenum (0.20-0.30%)

AISI Composition or SAE Number
 46xx Nickel (1.40-2.00%), molybdenum (0.15-0.30%)
 48xx Nickel (3.25-3.75%), molybdenum (0.20-0.30%)
 51xx Chromium (0.70-1.20%)
 61xx Chromium (0.70-1.10%), vanadium ((0.10%)
 81xx Nickel (0.20-0.40%), chromium
 (0.30-0.55%), molybdenum (0.08-0.15%)
 (0.40-0.85%), molybdenum (0.08-0.25%)
 (0.40-0.60%), molybdenum (0.20-0.30%)
 92xx Silicon (1.80-2.20%)
 xx: carbon content, 0.xx%

UNS Designations
 The Unified Numbering System (UNS) has been
developed by ASTM and SAE and several other
technical societies, trade associations, and United
States government agencies.
 A UNS number, which is a designation of chemical
composition and not a specification, is assigned to
each chemical composition of a metallic alloy.
 The UNS designation of an alloy consists of a letter
and five numerals. The letters indicate the broad
class of alloys; the numerals define specific alloys
within that class

ASTM (ASME) Specifications
 ASTM - American Society for Testing and
Materials
 The ASTM classification is widely used for
structural and pressure vessels steels. In this
classification, steels are given a reference
number, for example: ASTM A-36, A-285, A-516,
A-572
 Many of the ASTM specifications have been
adopted by the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers (ASME) with little or no modification;
ASME uses the prefix S and the ASTM
designation for these specifications. For example,
ASME-SA213 and ASTM A 213 are identical.
 A grade number sometimes follows the ASTM
number (ex: ASTM A-572 Grade 42 or 50).
European and Japanese Designation
Systems
 DIN standards are developed by Deutsches
Institut fur Normung in Germany.
 All steel specifications are preceded by the
uppercase letters DIN followed an
alphanumeric or numeric code. The latter
method, known as the Werkstoff number,
uses numbers only with a decimal point after
the first digit.
 For example DIN 17100 for structural steels
 DIN

European and Japanese Designation Systems
 JIS standards are developed by the Japanese
Industrial Standards Committee, which is part of the
Ministry of International Trade and Industry in Tokyo.
 The JIS steel specifications begin with the uppercase
letters JIS and are followed by an uppercase letter (G
in the case of carbon and low-alloy steels)
designating the division (product form) of the
standard. This letter is followed by a series of
numbers and letters that indicate the specific steel.
 For example: JIS G 3101 Rolled steels for general structure.
 JIS G 3111 Rolled carbon steel

European and Japanese Designation Systems
 British standards (BS) are developed by the British
Standards Institute in London, England. Similar to the
JIS standards, each British designation includes a
product form and an alloy code.
 AFNOR standards are developed by the Association

Francaise de Normalisation in Paris, France. The
correct format for reporting AFNOR standards is as
follows. An uppercase NF is placed to the left of the
alphanumeric code. This code consists of an
uppercase letter followed by a series of digits, which
are subsequently followed by an alphanumeric
sequence.

Structure of Plain Steel
 The essential difference between ordinary steel
and pure iron is the amount of carbon in the
former, which reduces the ductility but
increases the strength and the susceptibility to
hardening when rapidly cooled from elevated
temperatures.
 Because of the various microstructures, which
may be obtained by different heat-treatments,
it is necessary, to emphasize the fact that the
following structures are for "normal" steels, i.e.
slowly cooled from 760-900°C depending on
the carbon contents

Structure of Plain Steel
Armco iron: ferrite grains 0.4% carbon steel. Ferrite + pearlite
0.87% carbon steel

Alloy Steels
 The Alloy Steels Research Committee
adopted the following definition: “Carbon
steels are regarded as steels containing
not more than 0.5% manganese and 0.5%
silicon, all other steels being regarded as
alloy steels”.
 The principal alloying elements added to steel
in widely varying amounts either singly or in
complex mixtures are nickel, chromium,
manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, silicon
and cobalt.

Effect of alloying element
 It may go into solid
solution in the iron,
enhancing the strength.
 Hard carbides
associated with Fe3C
may be formed.
 It may form intermediate
compounds with iron,
e.g. Fe-Cr (sigma
phase), Fe-W,.

 It may influence the critical range in
one or more of the following ways:
1. Alter the temperature. For example,
3% nickel lowers the Ac points some
30°C, while 12% chromium raises
the Ac1, temperature to about 800°C
and also forms a range of
150/200°C above this in which the
pearlite changes to austenite.
2. Alter the carbon content of the
eutectoid. The carbon content of the
pearlite in a 12% chromium steel is
0.33%, as compared with 0.87 in an
ordinary steel. Nickel also reduces
the amount of carbon in the pearlite
and consequently increases the
volume of this constituent at the
expense of the weaker ferrite.

 Alter the “critical cooling velocity”, which is the
minimum cooling speed, which will produce bainite or
martensite from austenite. Typical critical speeds
obtained by quenching from 950°C are given in the
following Table
Carbon, % Alloying Element, Cooling Speed to form Martensite,
% °C per sec (650°C)
0.42 0.55 Mn 550
0.40 1.60 Mn 50
0.42 1.12 Ni 450
0.40 4.80 Ni 85
0.38 2.64 Cr 10

 Combinations of elements can be chosen so that the volume change
is reduced and also the risk of quench cracking. It may produce
effects characteristic of the alloying element.
 It may render the alloy sluggish to thermal changes, increasing the
stability of the hardened condition and so producing tool steels which are
capable of being used up to 550°C without softening and in certain cases
may exhibit an increase in hardness.
 It may have a chemical effect on the impurities. Under suitable slag
conditions vanadium, in quite small quantities, "cleans" the steel and
renders it free from slag inclusions. Manganese and zirconium form
sulphides.
 Certain elements such as chromium, aluminum, silicon and copper tend
to produce adherent oxide films on the surface of the steel, which
increase its resistance to corrosion and oxidation at elevated
temperatures.
 Creep strength may be increased by the presence of a dispersion of fine
carbides, e.g. molybdenum.

Classification of alloying additions
 Elements which tend to form carbides.
Chromium, tungsten, titanium, columbium,
vanadium, molybdenum and manganese. The
mixture of complex carbides is often referred
to as cementite.
 Elements which tend to graphitize the
carbide. Silicon, cobalt, aluminum and nickel.
Only a small proportion of these elements
can be added to the steel before graphite
forms during processing.

Classification of alloying additions
 Elements which tend to stabilize austenite.
Manganese, nickel, cobalt and copper. These
elements alter the critical points of iron in a similar
way to carbon by raising the A4 point and lowering
the A3 point, thus increasing the range in which
austenite is stable, and they also tend to retard the
separation of carbides. They have a crystal lattice
(FCC) similar to that of -iron in which they are more
soluble than in -iron.
 Elements which tend to stabilize ferrite.
Chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium and
silicon. These elements are more soluble in -iron
than in -iron. They diminish the amount of carbon
soluble in the austenite and thus tend to increase the
volume of free carbide in the steel for a given carbon
content.
Concept of Hardening
 The hardening process is often associated with heat
treatments like quenching or ageing. Generally
speaking, this process is described as the increasing
of hardness by suitable treatments, usually involving
heating and cooling or cold working.
 Hardness is, in fact, a measure of the resistance of a
material to plastic deformation, usually by
indentation. The term may also refer to stiffness or
temper, or to resistance to scratching, abrasion or
cutting.
 Indentation hardness may be measured by various
tests such as Brinell (B), Rockwell (HR) and Vickers
(Hv).

Concept of Hardening
 Hardenability is closely related to the formation of the
hard microstructure, martensite. Martensite is steel's
hardest microstructure. It is the result of rapid quenching
from above the transition temperature (723oC). Since
carbon and alloys cannot separate from the material to
make pearlite, they will create a supersaturated iron body-
centered phase, which is called martensite.
 Hardness is often considered as a good indicator for wear
resistance. This is only partially true since wear may take
many forms such as grinding wear, sharp particles wear or
friction wear. One has to be very careful not to
automatically select the hardest material for a given wear
action. Hardness is also associated with brittleness.
Except for a few situations, brittleness normally increases
when hardness increases

How To Harden Steel
 There are three main ways to harden
steel:
 Alloyingelements
 Mechanical deformation
 Heat treatments

Alloying Elements
 The introduction of alloying
elements in the crystalline
patterns (such as BCC or FCC)
will deform the pattern and
harden the metal
 The most important function of
these elements, in heat treatable
steels, is to increase
hardenability, which makes
possible the hardening of large
sections while using moderate
quenching environments

Role of different elements in steel
Carbon: Increases the tensile strength of steels by increasing the amount
of carbide present.
Increases the hardening capacity of the steel so that it may be
effectively quenched and tempered.
Decreases the toughness of the steels. More so when present as
lamellar (layered) cementite in pearlite rather than round
(globular/spheroidal) particles.
Silicon  Added as a deoxidizer during steel melting.
 Increases strength.
 Moderate increase in hardening capacity.
Manganese  Present in amounts up to 1.8 wt%.

 Combines with sulfur to form less harmful manganese
sulfide inclusions in high sulfur steels.
 Increases the steel's strength but less than silicon.
 Increases the steel's toughness to some extent.
 Considerably increases the steel hardening capacity.

Nickel  Little effect on steel's strength and hardening capacity but
considerably improves its low temperature toughness.
 Increases the atmospheric corrosion resistance of the steel.
Chromium  Little effect on steel's strength but increases the steel's

hardening capacity.
 Increases steel's resistance to scale/oxide formation when
heated to elevated temperatures.
 Combines with carbon to form chromium carbides that are
more stable than cementite.
 Helps to maintain the steel's strength and reduces its creep
strength at higher temperatures and for longer periods of time.
Molybdenum:  Has a small effect in increasing the steel strength.
 Increases hardening capacity, slightly more than does chromium.
 Forms more stable carbide than cementite.
 Increases the steel's resistance to creep.

Vanadium  Forms carbides.
 Added for strength and toughness via grain refinement in as-rolled
(control) as well as normalized steels.
 Helps retain higher hardness and strength after tempering in Q & T
steels.
Niobium  Forms nitrides and carbides.
 Added for strength and toughness via grain refinement.
Copper  Increase the steel strength.

 The effects on toughness and hardening capacity are small.
 Increases the atmospheric corrosion resistance of the steel
Boron: Added to relatively low carbon steels in very small amounts to increase
the hardening capacity of steels meant to be quenched and tempered
Nitrogen Intentionally added only when other elements like vanadium are
present so that vanadium nitrides can improve strength and help refine
the grain size

Increased strength C, Si, Cu, Mn, Mo (also Nb and V; their exact
effect depends on other factors also such as
the rolling temperature and time, amount of
carbon and nitrogen present, etc.)
Hardening capacity C, Mn, Mo, Cr, Ni, Cu
Toughness: Ni, grain refinement (achieved via the

presence of Nb, V, Al, Ti)
Elevated Temperature Cr, Mo, V

Properties
Atmospheric Cu, Ni
corrosion Resistance

Cold Work
 During cold work, (such as during the rolling
of the plate) work hardening is produced by
severe plastic deformation. Cold work
increases hardness, yield strength, and
tensile strength, and lowers ductility.
 Hardness and elongation react differently to
work hardening. As cold work increases,
hardness increases and elongation
decreases down to a minimum after which
the piece will brake.

Heat Treatment
 Heat treatment can be defined as an
operation or combination of operations
involving the heating and cooling of a metal
or alloy in the solid state
 Heat treatment consist basically in a three
steps process:
 Heating the steel to a specific temperature,
 Maintaining the steel at that temperature for a
certain length of time,
 Cooling the steel at a specific rate.

Conventional heat treatments
 Annealing
 Normalizing
 Quenching
 Tempering
 Stress relieving

Special heat treatments
 Flame hardening
 Hot shots
 Case hardening

Purposes of heat treatments
 Remove stresses induced by cold work
 Refine grain structure
 Decrease hardness and increase ductility
 Increase hardness
 Improve toughness
 Improve machinability
 Improve mechanical properties as a whole

High-Strength Structural and High-Strength
Low-Alloy Steels
 High-strength carbon and low-alloy steels have

yield strengths greater than 275 MPa and can be
more or less divided into four classes:
 As-rolled carbon-manganese steels
 As-rolled high-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels
(which are also known as micro alloyed steels)
 Heat-treated (normalized or quenched and
tempered) carbon steels
 Heat-treated low-alloy steels.

Structural Carbon Steels
 High-strength structural carbon steels are available in
various product forms:
 Cold-rolled structural sheet
 Hot-rolled carbon-manganese steels in the form of
sheet, plate, bar, and structural shapes
 Heat-treated (normalized or quenched and tempered)
carbon steels in the form of plate, bar, and
occasionally, sheet and structural shapes.
 The heat treatment of carbon steels, which typically attain
yield strengths of 290 to 690 MPa, consists of either
normalizing or quenching and tempering

Quenched and Tempered Low-Alloy
Steel
 Alloy steels are defined as those steels

that:
1. Contain manganese, silicon, or copper in
quantities greater than the maximum limits (1.65%
Mn, 0.60% Si, and 0.60% Cu) of carbon steel; or
2. Those have specified ranges or minimums for one
or more other alloying additions.
 The low-alloy steels are those steels
containing alloy elements, including carbon,
up to a total alloy content of about 8.0%.

 Quenched and tempered steels have carbon contents in
the range of 0.10 to 0.45%, with alloy contents, either
singly or in combination, of up to 1.5% Mn, 5% Ni,
3% Cr, 1% Mo, 0.5% V, 0.10% Nb; in some cases
they contain small additions of titanium, zirconium
and/or boron.
 Generally, the higher the alloy content, the greater the
hardenability and the higher the carbon content, the
greater the available strength.
 The response to heat treatment is the most important
function of the alloying elements in these steels.

 Enhanced toughness and high strength
are achieved in the nickel-chromium-
molybdenum alloys, which include
steels such as ASTM A 543, HY-80, HY-
100 and HY-130. These steels use
nickel to improve toughness.

High-Nickel Steels for Low-
Temperature Service
 For applications involving exposure to temperatures
from 0 to -195oC, the ferritic steels with high nickel
contents are typically used.
 Such applications include storage tanks for liquefied
hydrocarbon gases and structures and machinery
designed for use in cold regions.
 These steels utilize the effect of nickel content in
reducing the impact transition temperature, thereby
improving toughness at low temperatures.
 Carbon and alloy steel castings for subzero-
temperature service are covered by ASTM standard
specification A 757.
Examples
 The 5% Ni alloys for low-temperature service include

HY-130 and ASTM A 645.
 Double normalized and tempered 9% nickel steel is
covered by ASTM A 353,
 Quenched and tempered 8% and 9% nickel steels are
covered by ASTM A 553 (types I and II).
 Ferritic nickel steels are too tough at room
temperature for valid fracture toughness (KIc) data.
The 5% Ni steel retains relatively high fracture
toughness at -162oC and the 9% Ni steel retains
relatively high fracture toughness at -196oC.

Quench hardening of steel
 Heating temperatures are the same as those
given for full annealing.
 Soaking time in air furnaces should be 1.2 min.
for each mm of cross-section or 0.6 min in salt
or lead baths. Uneven heating, overheating and
excessive scaling should be avoided.
 Quenching is necessary to suppress the normal
breakdown of austenite into ferrite and
cementite, and to cause a partial
decomposition at such a low temperature to
produce martensite.
Tempering and toughening
 The martensite of quenched tool steel is

exceedingly brittle and highly stressed.
Consequently cracking and distortion of the
object are liable to occur after quenching.
Retained austenite is unstable and as it
changes dimensions may alter, e.g. dies may
alter 0.012 mm.
 It is necessary, therefore, to warm the steel
below the critical range in order to relieve
stresses and to allow the arrested reaction of
cementite precipitation to take place

Tempering temperatures
150-250°C The object is heated in an oil bath, immediately after
quenching, to prevent related cracking, to relieve
internal stress and to decompose austenite without
much softening.
200-450°C Used to toughen the steel at the expense of
hardness. Brinell hardness is 350-450.
450-700°C The precipitated cementite coalesces into larger
masses and the steel becomes softer. The structure is
known as sorbite, which at the higher temperatures
becomes coarsely spheroidised. It has a Brinell
hardness of 220-350.
Sorbite is commonly found in heat-treated
constructional steels, such as axles, shafts and
crankshafts subjected to dynamic stresses

Changes during tempering
 Stage 1. 50-200°C.
Martensite breaks down to a
transition precipitate known
as c-carbide (Fe2.4C) across
twins and a low carbon
martensite which results in
slight dispersion hardening,
decrease in volume and
electrical resistance.
 Stage 2. 205-305°C.
Decomposition of retained
austenite to bainite and
decrease in hardness.

 Stage 3. 250-500°C. Conversion of the
aggregate of low carbon martensite and
c-carbide into ferrite and cementite
precipitated along twins, which
gradually coarsens to give visible
particles and rapid softening.
 Stage 4. Carbide changes in alloy steel
at 400-700°C

Tempered 600°C.
As quenched. Laths with Tempered 300°C. Tempered 500°C. Recovery Recrystallization cementite
Widmanstatten precipitation of of dislocation structure into re-nucleated equioxed
high density of dislocation carbides within laths cells with laths
ferrite boundaries
Tempered 400°C.
Tempered 200°C.
High C twinned martensite Tempered 100°C. Fine Breakdown of twinned
Coherent cementite
structure. Carbides grow
e-carbides across twins along twins. c-carbides
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Carbon and Alloy Steels and spheroidise 51
Quench cracks
 Thevolume changes, which occur when

austenite is cooled, are:
 expansion when gamma iron transforms to
ferrite;
 contraction when cementite is precipitated;
 normal thermal contraction

Quench cracks
 Quench cracks are liable to occur:

 Due to presence of non-metallic inclusions,
cementite masses, etc.;
 When austenite is coarse grained due to
high quenching temperature;
 Owing to uneven quenching;
 In pieces of irregular section and when
sharp re-entrant angles are present in the
design.

Avoiding quench cracks
 The relation of design to heat-treatment is
very important

Alloyed tool and die steels
 Standard BS 4659:1971 groups tool
steels into six types:
 High speed,
 Hot work,
 Cold work,
 Shock resisting,
 Special purpose, and
 Water hardening.

Non-shrinking Steels
 This term refers to steels, which show
little change in volume from the
annealed state when hardened and
tempered at low temperatures. Usually
the following volume changes occur.
 Pearlitic austenitic state, contraction
 Austenitic martensitic state, expansion
 Martensitic sorbitic state, contraction

Non-shrinking Steels
 In non-shrinking steels the volume changes
counterbalance each other, and such steels are
required for master tools, gauges and dies which
must not change size when hardened after machining
in the annealed condition.
 The cheapest non-shrinkage steel contains 0,9% carbon and
about 1,7% manganese.
 A better steel is, C, 1.0; Mn, 0.95; W, 0.5; Cr, 0.75; V, 0.2
 Both steels are oil quenched from 780° to 800°C and

tempered 224-245°C. High carbon 5% and 12%
chromium steels are also used for non-distortion.

Finishing tool steel
 While high-speed steels are very efficient with heavy cuts and
high speeds they are incapable, at slow speeds and lighter cuts,
of holding the keen edge necessary for obtaining a very smooth
finish on certain articles.
 Special steels have been produced for this purpose, known as
finishing steels, which are capable of retaining a keen cutting
edge for much longer periods than carbon steel used under
similar conditions. The usual type has the approximate
composition:
C, 1.1 to 1.4; W, 4; Cr, 0.7 to 1.5; V, 0.3
 After preheating to 650°C it is water hardened at 820-840°C and
immediately tempered at 150-180°C. Anneal at 750°C.
 Tungsten steels containing 1 to 5,5% and 1 to 1,3% carbon are
used for twist drills, taps, milling cutters, drawing dies and also
tools for rifling gun barrels, boring cylinders and expanding
tubes, which require long continuous cutting without interruption
for regrinding. They are tempered at 200-230°C.

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 AFNOR standards are developed by the Association

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Armco iron: ferrite grains 0.4% carbon steel. Ferrite + pearlite

0.87% carbon steel

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Manganese  Present in amounts up to 1.8 wt%.

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Chromium  Little effect on steel's strength but increases the steel's

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Copper  Increase the steel strength.

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Toughness: Ni, grain refinement (achieved via the

Elevated Temperature Cr, Mo, V

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 High-strength carbon and low-alloy steels have

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 Alloy steels are defined as those steels

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 The 5% Ni alloys for low-temperature service include

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 The martensite of quenched tool steel is

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 Thevolume changes, which occur when

 normal thermal contraction

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 Quench cracks are liable to occur:

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