ITN - instructorPPT - Chapter 4-VER 6-FINAL

Chapter 4:
Network Access
Introduction to Networks
Presentation_ID © 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 1
Chapter 4
4.1 Physical Layer Protocols
4.2 Network Media
4.3 Data Link Layer Protocols
4.4 Media Access Control
4.5 Summary
Prerequisite

Fundamentals of communication signal
ANALOG SIGNAL
DIGITAL SIGNAL
Frequency
 Frequency = # of cycles/second
 shorter wave length produce higher frequencies

b/c the waves are closer together
UNIT USED TO MEASURE FREQUENCY
 Hertz =>means Cycles Per Second
 Kilohertz
 Megahertz
 Gigahertz etc
Prefixes used together with HERTZ or bps
 Kilo (K) = 103 = 1 Thousand

 Mega (M) = 106 =1 Million
 Giga (G) = 109 = 1 Billion
 Tera (T) = 1012 = 1 Trillion
 Peta (P) = 1015 = 1 Quadrillion
 Exa (E) = 1018 =1 Quintillion
Note: In computing world
 1 KB ≈ 103 B
 1 KB = 1024 B = 210 B
Hence
 1 KB = 210 bytes
 1 MB = 220 bytes
 1 GB =230 bytes
 1 TB = 240 bytes
 1 PB = 250 bytes
Digital signal
COMPUTER CODING SYSTEM
Numbers, letters and symbols found on the
keyboard are coded.
We need standard. The popular one is
ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
interchange) code
For example:
A is represented by 01000001
0 is represented by 00110000
1 is represented by 00110001 etc.
What is BANDWIDTH?
The data transmission capacity of
a communications channel
i.e. The amount of data that can be transmitted in a fixed
amount of time.
Example: FOUR-LANE ROAD can

carry more traffic than a TWO-
LANE ROAD.
Similarly some COMCHA can carry
more data than others.
Illustration to understand bandwidth
The BANDWIDTH of digital COMCHA is
usually expressed in Bits Per Second (bps) or Bytes
per second (BPS)
The BANDWIDTH of Analog devices

/analog COMCHA is expressed in cycles per second, or
HERTZ (Hz)
Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.
What is Throughput?
 It is the measure of the
transfer of bits across the
media over a given period of
time.
 Due to a number of factors, throughput usually does not match the
specified bandwidth in physical layer implementations
Many factors influence

throughput including:
 The amount of traffic
 The type of traffic
 The latency created by the number
of network devices encountered
between source and destination
Measuring internet connection speed
www.speedtest.net
What is Goodput?
Goodput is the measure of usable
data transferred over a given
period of time.
Goodput = throughput – (traffic
overhead for establishing
sessions, acknowledgements, and
encapsulation)
 Fundamentals of
signal/data transmission
BASE BAND TRANSMISSION
 Allocates the entire bandwidth to a single channel
 Best suited for LAN
 Only supports digital signaling
 Signal flows in the form of discrete pulses of
electricity or light
BROADBAND TRANSMISSION
 divides the available bandwidth into multiple

channels
i.e. more than one device can
transmit at a time
 can transfer large quantities of data at a time
 Supports analog as well as digital signaling
 designed for signaling over long distance
communications
 Suitable for WANs
4.1 Physical Layer Protocols
 a. How do you get

physically connected to
LAN?
Using
 Shared Hub
 Shared Switch
 Wireless AP/WAP
 ISRs/home router
Connecting to the wired LAN
Connecting to the wireless LAN with a range
Extender
 Use NICs to connect
end devices to the
network
 Ethernet NIC
/wired connections/
 Ethernet WLAN NICs

/wireless connection/
End devices might
have one or both
types of NICS
b. What is the Purpose of the Physical layer protocol?
The PL encodes the frames and creates the

electrical, optical, or radio wave signals that
represent the bits in each frame.
Physical Layer Standards
a. The physical layer standards address
i. Physical Components
 Media, NICs, connectors etc
ii. Encoding
 The physical layer must generate the
electrical, optical, or wireless signals
(Signaling)
 provide codes for control purposes such as
identifying the beginning and end of a frame.
4.1.2.4 Lab - Identifying Network Devices
and Cabling
Filed visit (tour)

AAU-CBE-school of commerce
4.2 Network Media
Bounded media
1. Copper Media (copper cable)
2. OPTICAL MEDIA (fiber optic
Unbounded media
3. Wireless media air, water,
outer space(vacuum), etc
i. Copper Media
Two types:-
Twisted-pair cable
Coaxial cable (co-ax)
1. Twisted-pair cable
The problem of Electromagnetic
Fog in copper media
Source of electromagnetic fog
 DATA CABLE WHICH CARRIES SIGNAL
 MOTORS
 POWER TRANSFORMERS.
 CELLULAR PHONE
 ELECTRIC VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION LINES
 RADIO/TV BROADCAST TOWERS etc
Hence in copper media, the following
THREATS should be considered
Noise (unwanted signal) to be considered 

i. External Electromagnetic Interferences (EMI)
ii. Radio frequency interferences (10KHz to 6GHz
(regulated by Federal communications Commission
(FCC)) ) (RFI)
 Note: Frequencies for unregulated use are:
902-928 MHz - Cordless phones, remote controls.
2.4 GHz ( used in Wi-Fi, Bluetooth )
5.72-5.85 GHz
11 – 23 GHz microwave signals
iii. Crosstalk (background conversations )

Noise in copper media
HOW THESE THREATS CAN
BE PROTECTED?
1. BY TWISTING cancels out electrical noise

from adjacent pairs/DATA WIRE and from
other external sources.
2. BY SHIELDING can increase
immunity/Resistance to EMI & RFI
How Crosstalk occurs?
 Crosstalk is the noise
generated by adjacent pairs
or twisted data wires pair-
to-pair coupling and data
wire –to- data wire coupling
 Twisting the wires can
enhance cancellation
effect.
 a cable with short twist
length is preferable to
reduce such noise
Attenuation causes signals to
deteriorate
Themaximum data transmission length of
twisted pair cable is 100 meters
TYPES OFTWISTED PAIR
CABLE
There are two types
of twisted pair
cable BASED
ON SHIELDING
1. Unshielded
Twisted Pair
cable (UTP)
2. Shielded
twisted pair
cable (STP)
UTP Cabling Standards
Category 6
• Similar to CAT 5/5e.
• but contains a physical separator
between the 4 pairs To reduce
the effect of crosstalk, EMI, and
RFI,
Category 7
This category is still in the development stage and use
I. Braided Aluminum shielding
ii. Aluminum foil shielding for each pairs
Note: requires grounding
Crimping Standards
Standard Ethernet wiring scheme
A. Straight-Through Cable (ll)
For connecting unlike devices
 Router to hub X
 Router to switch 
 Switch to PC or server 
 Hub to PC or server X
 Network printer to switch 
 Network printer to hub X
Example -1
Crimp and test Straight-Through Cable (ll) using the
standard T568B.
Steps
You must strip the jacket 3 to 5 cm using striper
Arrange the wires
•Cut the wires straight
across so that no more
than 1.25 cm of wires
are exposed from the
jacket This controls
terminal cross-talk
interference
Insert your wires into

the connector, white-
orange on left
Note
Pin 1 & Pin 2 are

transmitter
Pin 3 & Pin 6 are receiver
B. Crossover cables (X)
Used to connect like devices

 Switch to switch 
 Switch to hub X
 Hub to hub X
 Router to router 
 PC to PC 
 Router to PC 
Example-2
 Crimp and test X-over

cable using T568B
standard
C. Rollover Cable/console cable
 Used for intermediary devices configuration
Instruments required
RJ-45/11 Crimpier
Punch Down Tool
Connecting on RJ-45 Jack
Wiring Closet (RACK)
How do you avoid this problem?
Testing UTP Cables
Network Cable
Tracer/tracker Network cable tester
Warning
Guarding Against
Electrostatic Discharge
(ESD)
Put your Antistatic wrist
band /strap on your hand
before inserting NIC into
your system
Coaxial Cable
OPTICAL MEDIA
Fiber Optic Cable (Outdoor)
Advanced Fiber optic Cable Design
Fiber Optic Cable (Indoor)
µm =a unit of length known as a micron or
micrometer.
1 µm = 0.000001 meter = 10-6 meter
 Optical fiber cable contains glass (or in some cases,
plastic) fibers rather than copper wire.
 Signals are transmitted across these fibers in the form
of light pulses rather than electrical pulses.
 Optical fiber strands are thin filaments of glass
consisting of an inner core and an outer cladding.
 Both the core and the cladding are glass (plastic), and
each has a different refractive index (light passing
capability) less dense medium has more refractive index
than more dense medium
 When these light pulses strike the cladding (dense
medium) they are reflected back into the core because
the cladding has a lower refractive index than the core.
This keeps the transmitted signal within the core as it
travels down the fiber.
Types of fiber optic cable
1. Single-mode FOC (SMF)
core diameter of
approximately= 9 µm
2. Multimode FOC (MMF)
the most commonly used
type
core diameter = 50/62.5
µm.
The cladding diameter for
both is 125 µm.
Multimode FOC
Single mode FOC
Fiber Optic Cable Connectors
 Straight Tip (ST) connector:-
It is a connector that uses a
mechanism similar to the
BNC connectors used by
thinnet. The most popular
 Subscriber connector (SC):-
are square shaped and have
release mechanisms to
prevent the cable from
accidentally being
unplugged
continued…….
 Lucent Connector
(LC): Sometimes
called a little or local
connector, is quickly
growing in popularity
due to its smaller
size. It is used with
single-mode fiber and
also supports
multimode fiber.
Common fiber patch cords
LC connectors magnified…
Sample fiber NICs
Fusion Splicer
fiber optic pigtail
 fiber optic pigtail is a piece of fiber with connector installed on
one end only.
 used for terminating a out door fiber to the fiber patch panel
by using fusion splicer.
Fiber Optic Cabling
Testing Fiber Cables  Misalignment: The
fiber-optic media are
not precisely aligned to
one another when
joined.
 End gap: The media
does not completely
touch at the splice or
connection.
 End finish: The media
ends are not well
polished or dirt is
present at the
Presentation_ID
termination.
© 2008 Cisco Systems, Inc. All rights reserved. Cisco Confidential 76
Fiber Optic Cabling
Fiber versus Copper
Implementation issues Copper media Fibre-optic
Bandwidth supported 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps 10 Mbps – 100 Gbps
Relatively short Relatively High

Distance (1 – 100 meters) (1 – 100,000 meters)
High
Immunity to EMI and RFI Low
(Completely immune)
High
Immunity to electrical hazards Low
(Completely immune)
Media and connector costs Lowest Highest
Installation skills required Lowest Highest
Safety precautions Lowest Highest
Commonly used outdoor FOC
1. Aerial Cable/Self-Supporting provides ease of
installation -above ground and reduces time and cost
Continued…
2. Armored Cable  can be used for rodent –(type of rat )
protection in direct burial if required
Wireless Media
Types of Wireless Media
• IEEE 802.11 standards
• Commonly referred to as Wi-Fi.
• Uses CSMA/CA
• Variations include:
• 802.11a: 54 Mbps, 5 GHz
• 802.11b: 11 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• 802.11g: 54 Mbps, 2.4 GHz
• 802.11n: 600 Mbps, 2.4 and 5 GHz
• 802.11ac: 1 Gbps, 5 GHz
• 802.11ad: 7 Gbps, 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz, and 60 GHz
• IEEE 802.15 standard

• Supports speeds up to 3 Mbps
• Provides device pairing over distances from 1 to
100 meters.
• IEEE 802.16 standard

• Provides speeds up to 1 Gbps
• Uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide
wireless broadband access.
Wi-MAX /point to multipoint topology/
used by service providers
Wireless Media
Wireless LAN
Cisco Linksys EA6500 802.11ac wireless router

Wireless Media
802.11 Wi-Fi Standards
Maximum Backwards
Standard Frequency
Speed compatible
802.11a 54 Mbps 5 GHz No
802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz No
802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz 802.11b
802.11n 600 Mbps 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz 802.11b/g
1.3 Gbps 2.4 GHz and 5.5

802.11ac (1300 Mbps) GHz
802.11b/g/n
7 Gbps 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz and

802.11ad (7000 Mbps) 60 GHz
802.11b/g/n/ac
LAB exercises
Will be discussed in chapter 5
4.3 Data Link Layer Protocols

4.4 Media Access Control

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Chapter 4:

 shorter wave length produce higher frequencies

 Kilo (K) = 103 = 1 Thousand

Example: FOUR-LANE ROAD can

The BANDWIDTH of Analog devices

Many factors influence

 divides the available bandwidth into multiple

 a. How do you get

 Ethernet WLAN NICs

The PL encodes the frames and creates the

Filed visit (tour)

Noise (unwanted signal) to be considered 

iii. Crosstalk (background conversations )

1. BY TWISTING cancels out electrical noise

Insert your wires into

Pin 1 & Pin 2 are

Used to connect like devices

 Crimp and test X-over

Bandwidth supported 10 Mbps – 10 Gbps 10 Mbps – 100 Gbps

Relatively short Relatively High

Media and connector costs Lowest Highest

Installation skills required Lowest Highest

Safety precautions Lowest Highest

• IEEE 802.15 standard

• IEEE 802.16 standard

Cisco Linksys EA6500 802.11ac wireless router

802.11a 54 Mbps 5 GHz No

802.11b 11 Mbps 2.4 GHz No

802.11g 54 Mbps 2.4 GHz 802.11b

802.11n 600 Mbps 2.4 GHz or 5 GHz 802.11b/g

1.3 Gbps 2.4 GHz and 5.5

7 Gbps 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz and

4.3 Data Link Layer Protocols

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