D I PL O M A I N P H A RM A CY

PHR 121 ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

M R . S . T H AVA S E E L A N
Co n tac t: 01 2 6 5 39 8 95
GUESS INTRODUCTION

Is there any relation

?
between
endocrine system
and
nervous system?
GUESS INTRODUCTION

Answer:
 The 2 systems are major regulatory systems
in the body.

?
 Nervous system controls structures by
sending action potentials along axons, which
release chemical signals at their ends near
the cells they control.
 Endocrine system release chemicals into
circulatory system, which carries the
chemicals to the cells they control.
 Endocrine system has more general effect,
acts more slowly, and has longer lasting
effect than the nervous system.
 Chapter 6: The Endocrine System

6.1. Functions of the Endocrine System

6.2. Chemical Signals
6.3. Receptors
6.4. Hormones
6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their Hormones
6.6. Other Hormones
Recommended Text Book:
Seeley. (2008). Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, 8th Edition, McGraw Hill.
6.1. Functions of the Endocrine System

Main Regulatory Functions

Water balance
Uterine contraction and milk release
MAIN REGULATORY Growth, metabolism and tissue maturation
Ion regulation
FUNCTIONS OF THE Heart rate and blood pressure regulation
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Blood glucose control
Immune system regulation
Reproductive functions control
 6.1. Chemical Signals

Definition & Types of Chemical Signals

Molecules released from one location that move to another
DEFINITION location to produce a response.
Produced in one part of a cell and travel to another part of
INTRACELLULAR the same cell and bind to receptor of the cell.
Released from one cell, carried in the intercellular fluid and
INTERCELLULAR bind to their receptors in some cells.
 6.1. Chemical Signals

Types of Intercellular Chemical Signal

TYPES SECRETED BY INFLUENCES EXAMPLE
Autocrine Cells in local area Same cell type Eicosanoids
Variety of tissues into tissue Local or other Somastatin
Paracrine
spaces tissues histamine
Hormone Specialized cells into blood Target tissues Insulin
Neurohormone Neurons Target tissues Oxytocin
Neurons into extracellular
Neurotransmitter Postsynaptic cells Acetylcholine
spaces (presynapse)
Pheromones Tissues into the hormone Other individuals Pheromones
 6.3. Receptors

Overview & Types of Receptors

Proteins or glycoproteins molecules where chemical signals
bind to produce a response.
RECEPTOR Receptor site – where a chemical signal binds.
Specificity – tendency for each receptor site to bind to a
specific chemical signal.
Membrane-bounded receptors - Proteins, peptides, amino
2 TYPES OF RECEPTORS acid derivatives and eicosanoids.
Intracellular receptors - Steroids and thyroid hormones.
 6.3. Receptors

Receptor Responses
MEMBRANE-BOUNDED Receptors that directly alter membrane permeability.
Receptors and G proteins.
RECEPTOR RESPONSE Receptors that directly alter the activity of enzymes.
Diffuse across cell membrane, relatively small and are
soluble in lipids (e.g. enzymes).
INTRACELLULAR Binding of the intercellular chemical signals change the
activity of the enzymes. Others bind to DNA in the nucleus,
RECEPTOR RESPONSES increase specific mRNA in the cell’s nucleus.
mRNA moves to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm where new
proteins are produced.
Receptors that directly alter membrane permeability

Intercellular chemical signals that directly cause ion channels in the cell
membrane to open
 Receptors and G Proteins

Membrane-bound receptors that activate G proteins

Receptors that directly alter the activity of enzymes

Membrane-bound receptors that control enzyme activity

 Receptors that directly alter the activity of enzyme

Membrane-bound receptors activating intracellular enzymes that increase cGMP

synthesis
Receptors that directly alter the activity of enzyme

Membrane-bound receptors that phosphorylate intracellular proteins

Intracellular Receptor Response
 6.3. Receptors

Comparison of Receptor Responses

AMINO-ACID BASED HORMONES STEROID HORMONES
Hydrophilic – cannot enter the cell membrane Lipophilic – easily diffuse into the cell
membrane
Produce cascade effect No cascade effect
Produce rapid responses Slower
Generation of 2nd messenger Not using any 2nd messenger
Alter the activity of other molecules (usually Alter transcriptional activity of responsive genes
enzymes) within the cell / Activate enzymes / create new protein
 6.4. Hormones

Overview of Hormones
 Hormone is a specific messenger molecule synthesized and
secreted by a group of specialized cells (endocrine glands).
 These glands are ductless - secretions (hormones) are
OVERVIEW released directly into the bloodstream and travel to
elsewhere in the body to target tissues.
 Target tissue made up of cells that have receptor molecules
for the specific hormone.
Endocrine system consists of the endocrine glands.
2 TYPES OF ENDOCRINE In contrast, exocrine glands secrete their products into ducts,
which exit the glands and carry the secretory products to an
GLANDS external or internal surface (e.g. skin, digestive tract).
Sweat and salivary glands are examples of exocrine glands
Major Endocrine Glands
 6.4. Hormones

Chemistry & Regulation of Hormones

Non steroidal
PROTEINS, PEPTIDES AND
Bind to membrane-bound receptors, except peptide hormone
AMINO ACID DERIVATIVES
(thyroid gland)
Derived from cholesterol / steroidal
LIPID HORMONES
Eicosanoids (fatty acid arachidonic acid)
Controlled by negative feedback mechanisms
Hormone secretion is regulated in 3 ways:
REGULATION OF  Blood level of chemicals (e.g. blood glucose level)
HORMONE SECRETION  Hormones (e.g. pituitary gland – sex hormones)
 Nervous system (e.g. epinephrine – nervous system
stimulation)
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Pituitary Gland
 The pituitary gland (hypophysis), is a roundish organ that
lies immediately beneath the hypothalamus, resting in a
depression of the base of the skull called the sella turcica
PITUITARY GLAND ("Turkish saddle").
 Divided into 2 parts:
 The anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)
 The posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)
Pituitary Gland
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of The Anterior Pituitary Glands
 Produced by somatotropic cells of the anterior lobe
 Stimulate most cells, but target bone and skeletal muscle
 GH stimulates the growth of bones, muscles and other
organs by increasing protein synthesis.
 Resists protein breakdown during periods of food
GROWTH HORMONE deprivation and favors fat breakdown
(GH/SOMATOTROPIN)  Deficiency of GH – pituitary dwarf
 Excess GH – gigantism / acromegaly
 GHRH – somatocrinin, GHIH – somatostatin
 Genetic, nutrition & sex hormones influence growth
 Influenced by insulin-like growth factors (IGFs /
somatomedins)
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of The Anterior Pituitary Gland
 TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to make thyroid hormones,
which, in turn, control (regulate) the body's metabolism,
energy, growth & development, and nervous system activity
 Too much TSH – thyroid gland enlarge & secrete too much
THYROID-STIMULATING
thyroid hormones
HORMONE (TSH)
 Too little TSH, thyroid gland decreases in size & too little
thyroid hormones is secreted
 Rate of secretion increased by a releasing hormone from the
hypothalamus
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of The Anterior Pituitary Gland
 ACTH increases secretion of cortisol (hydrocortisone) from
the adrenal cortex
 Cortisol, a so-called "stress hormone," is vital to survival. It
ADRENOCORTICOTROPIN helps maintain blood pressure and blood glucose levels
(ACTH)  Required to keep the adrenal cortex from degenerating
 Also bind to melanocytes in the skin & increase skin
pigmentation
 Rate is increased by a releasing hormone from hypothalamus
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of The Anterior Pituitary Gland
 Gonadotropins – regulate the growth, development and
functions of the gonads
 Luteinizing hormone (LH / ICSH)
 In females, causes ovulation of oocytes and secretion of
estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries
 In males, stimulates the secretion of sex hormones
GONADOTROPINS
testosterone from the testes
 Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)
 Stimulates the development of follicles in the ovaries and
sperm cells in testes
 LH and FSH work together to allow normal function of
the ovaries or testes
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of The Anterior Pituitary Gland
 Prolactin (PRL)
 Help promote development of the breast during pregnancy
GONADOTROPINS
 Stimulates the production of milk in the breast following
pregnancy and after childbirth
MELANOCYTE-  MSH cause melanocytes to produce melanin
STIMULATING HORMONE  Over-secretion – darken skin
(MSH)  Structure similar to ACTH, both causes kin to darken
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of The Posterior Pituitary Gland
 ADH increases water absorption by kidney tubules, so less
water loss as urine
ANTIDIURETIC HORMONE  Cause blood vessels to constrict when released in large
(ADH / VASOPRESSIN) amounts
 Lack of ADH – diabetes insipidus (production of large
amount of dilute urine)
 Oxytocin causes contraction of smooth muscle cells of the
uterus and milk letdown in nursing mothers
OXYTOCIN
 Assist in childbirth and to constrict uterine blood vessels
following childbirth
Pituitary Gland Hormones & Their Target Tissues
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Thyroid Glands
 Made up of 2 lobes connected by isthmus, highly vascular,
surrounded by connective tissue capsule.
 Contains thyroid follicles - synthesize and store thyroid
hormone in with thyroglobulin (precursor of thyroid hormone).
 Parafollicular cells, produce the calcitonin.
 Main function – secrete thyroid hormones to regulate the
rate of metabolism in the body.
THYROID GLANDS
 Lack of TH – hypothyroidism.
 In infants – cretinism (mentally retarded, short stature,
abnormal skeletal structures.
 Lack of TH in adults – reduced rate of metabolism,
sluggishness, reduced ability & myxedema.
 Elevated rate of TH – hyperthyroidism; elevated rate of
metabolism, extreme nervousness and chronic fatigue.
Thyroid Glands
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of Thyroid Gland
 The body’s major metabolic hormone, regulated by TSH
from anterior pituitary; iodine required for TH synthesis.
 Consists of two closely related iodine-containing compounds
THYROID HORMONE  T4 – thyroxine / tetraiodothyronine; has two tyrosine
molecules plus four bound iodine atoms
 T3 – triiodothyronine; has two tyrosines with three bound
iodine atoms
 A peptide hormone produced by the parafollicular, or C,
cells of the thyroid glands
 Secreted if blood Ca2+ levels is too high, thus decreases
CALCITONIN
blood Ca2+ levels
 Antagonist to parathyroid hormone (PTH)
 Calcitonin prevent elevated blood Ca2+ levels
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Parathyroid Glands
 Embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid gland
 PTH – essential for regulation of blood Ca2+ levels (acts on
its target tissue to raise blood Ca2+ levels to normal)
 More important than calcitonin in regulating blood Ca 2+
levels
PARATHYROID GLAND  PTH stimulates kidneys to form active vitamin D formation
in the renal – causes epithelial cells of the intestine to
increase Ca2+ absorption
 PTH increased bone breakdown and increased blood Ca2+
level by indirectly stimulating osteoclast activity
 PTH decrease rate at which Ca2+ lost in the urine
Parathyroid Glands

Thyroid
Gland

Parathyroid
Gland
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of Parathyroid Glands
 Increases rate of bone breakdown
 Prevents large increase in blood Ca2+ levels following a meal
 PTH release increases Ca2+ in the blood as it:
 Stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix.
PARATHYROID HORMONE
 Increases absorption of Ca2+ by intestinal mucosal cells.
 Enhances the reabsorption of Ca2+ and the secretion of
phosphate by the kidneys.
 Rising Ca2+ in the blood inhibits PTH release.
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Adrenal Glands
 Adrenal glands – paired, pyramid-shaped organs on top of
the kidneys.
 Structurally and functionally, they are two glands in one.
ADRENAL GLANDS
 Adrenal medulla – inner part
 Adrenal cortex – outer part
 Both functions as separate endocrine glands.
Adrenal Glands
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of Adrenal Medulla
 Increase cardiac output
EPINEPHRINE &  Increases blood flow to skeletal muscle and heart
NOREPINEPHRINE  Increases release of glucose and fatty acids into blood
 In general prepares the body for physical activity
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of Adrenal Cortex
 Increase rate of sodium transport into body
MINERALCORTICOIDS
 Increase rate of potassium excretion
(ALDOSTERONE)
 Secondarily favor water retention
 Increase fat and protein breakdown
GLUCOCORTICOIDS
 Increase glucose synthesis from amino acids
(CORTISOL)
 Inhibit inflammation and immune response
 Insignificant in males
ADRENAL ANDROGENS  Increase female sexual drive
 Stimulate pubic hair and axillary hair growth
6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Pancreas
 A triangular gland, which has both exocrine and endocrine
cells, located behind the stomach.
 Acinar cells produce an enzyme-rich juice used for digestion
(exocrine product).
PANCREAS  Pancreatic islets (islets of Langerhans) produce hormones
(endocrine products).
 The islets contain two major cell types:
 Alpha () cells that produce glucagon
 Beta () cells that produce insulin
Pancreas
6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Hormones of Pancreas
 Increases uptake and use of glucose and amino acids
 Released in response to the to the elevated blood glucose
levels and increased parasympathetic stimulation that
INSULIN
associated with digestion of a meal
 Major target: liver, adipose tissue, muscles, and satiety
center
 Increases breakdown of glycogen and release of glucose into
the circulatory
 Released when blood glucose levels are low
 Its major target is the liver, where it promotes:
GLUCAGON
Glycogenolysis – the breakdown of glycogen to glucose.
Release of glucose to the blood from liver cells.
Gluconeogenesis – synthesis of glucose from lactic acid
and noncarbohydrates
6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Ovaries & Its Hormones
 Paired ovaries in the abdominopelvic cavity produce
hormone estrogens and progesterone
 They are responsible for:
ESTROGEN &
 Maturation of the reproductive organs
PROGESTERONE
 Appearance of secondary sexual characteristics
 Breast development and cyclic changes in the uterine
mucosa
Ovaries
6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Testes & Its Hormones
 Testes located in an extra-abdominal sac (scrotum) produce
testosterone.
 Responsible for growth and development of the male
reproductive structures, muscle enlargement, growth of body
hair, voice changes and the male sexual
TESTESTERONE
 Initiates maturation of male reproductive organs
 Causes appearance of secondary sexual characteristics and
sex drive
 Is necessary for sperm production
 Maintains sex organs in their functional state
Testes
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Thymus & Its Hormones
 Lobulated gland located deep to the sternum in the thorax
THYMOPOEITINS &  Major hormonal products are thymopoietins and thymosins
THYMOSINS  These hormones are essential for the development of the T-
lymphocytes (T-cells) of the immune system
 Thymus

Thymus gland
in fetus

Thymus gland
in adults
6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Pineal Gland & Its Hormones
 Secretory product of pineal gland is melatonin
 Melatonin is involved with:
MELATONIN  Day/night cycles
 Physiological processes that show rhythmic variations
(body temperature, sleep, appetite)
Pineal Gland
 6.5. Endocrine Glands & Their
Hormones
Other Hormone Producing Structures
 Prostaglandins – autocrine / paracrine, cause relaxation and
contraction of smooth muscle
 Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) – essential to the
maintenance of pregnancy
 Heart – produces atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), which
reduces blood pressure, blood volume, and blood sodium
OTHER HORMONES concentration
 Gastrointestinal tract – enteroendocrine cells release local-
acting digestive hormones, to promote production of
digestive juices from stomach, pancreas and liver
 Kidneys – secrete erythropoietin, which signals the
production of red blood cells
 Skin – produces cholecalciferol, the precursor of vitamin D
 Next Chapter:
BLOOD

7.1. Functions of Blood

7.2. Composition of Blood
7.3. Preventing Blood Loss
7.4. Blood Grouping
7 . 5 . D i a g n o s t i c B l o o d Te s t s
Recommended Text Book:
Seeley. (2008). Essentials of Anatomy & Physiology, 8th Edition, McGraw Hill.