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Course Name: Theory of Elasticity in Geotechnical Eng‘g
Course Code: CENG 6205

Course Instructor: D. Ing. Dr. Tensay Gebremedhin
Semester: I
Academic Year 2018/2019
Program: Graduate
Credit hours: 3
Synopsis
To understand the concept of stress/strain in the frame work of elasticity
To understand the stress/strain conditions in soils under the framework of
elasticity
To introduce the concept of energy and variational methods to solve
problems in elasticity
To apply theory of elasticity to geotechnical problems
1. General Introduction to Elasticity
1.1 Introduction:
• Important aspect of soil mechanics is used to predict the
stresses & strains imposed at a given point in a soil mass due to
certain loading conditions.
• Why?
 to estimate settlement
 to conduct stability analysis of earth and earth-retaining structures
 to determine stress conditions on underground structures.
• Elasticity is concerned with the determination of the stresses

and displacements in a body as a result of applied loads.
• A body under elastic deformation reverts to its original state on

the removal of the loads.
1. General Introduction ... Cont‘d
• The focus here will be on linear infinitesimal elasticity.

• stresses and displacements are linear with loads.
• linear superposition can be used to construct
solutions.
• How do the real and idealized stress–strain diagrams for

different soil types look like?
• Why do we need to study easticity?

– Most soils behave like a linear elastic material at relatively small
applied stresses
– Parameters used
– FoS
1. General Introduction ... Cont‘d
2. Introduction to Continuum Mecahnics
• Soils are multiphase materials comprised of mineral grains, air
voids and water. Hence, technically speaking a soil can never
be a continuum.
• Ideally, the mathematical characterization of a soil should be

based on the behavior of individual constituent elements and
their interaction.
• For any reasonable problem in geotechnical engineering the

characteristic dimension or the scale of practical interest will
be in the order of meters, whereas the characteristic dimension
of a soil particle could range from 2mm (e.g. clay) to 50 mm
(gravel).
2.1 Definition of stress:
• Stress is the magnitude of a force per unit area of the
surface it is acting on.
F
  lim
A 0 A
FN
 n  lim
A0 A
FS
 s  lim
A 0 A
•
2.1.1 Effective and total stresses:
• The effective stresses relate to total stresses and pore
pressure thru:
• Usually constitutive models of soils are based on ES

approach.
• Drained and undrained conditions

2.1.2 Coordinate system:
• The different coordinate system of axes employed in
mechanics of materials and higher theories.
• These include the cartesian, polar or spherical, and

cylindrical systems.
• In soil mechanics theories the Cartesian coordinate system

is as shown in Fig1.1.docx
2.1.3 Indexing and sign conventions
o The stresses at a point in a granular soil mass are
represnted on a prism coordinate system; Fig1.2.docx
o A face is positive, if its outward normal vector is in

the positive direction of the axis parallel it.
o The normal stresses are described with only one

index.
o Because soil does not resist tensile stresses,

compressive stresses are considered as positive.
o The shear stresses are described with two indices.
– The first indicates the plane on which the stress is

acting.
– The second indicates the axis to which the stress is

parallel.
– For the plot of MOHR's stress circle, a shear stress on a

face is positive, if it tends to rotate the element in the
cc direction.
2.1.4 Stress Tensor
o
• From Fig 1.2, each face of the prismatic element there are
3 stress components.
o Because of equal but opposite stresses on opposite faces

of the prism, we have a total of nine stress components.
o These are six shear and three stress components

o The moment equilibrium requirement yields, however,
o This reduces the total number of stress components

necessary at a point to only six.
•o The six (or nine) stress components described
above form an entity called stress tensor, T.
o It is given in matrix form as follows and is 3 order
stress tensor.
o ;
2.1.5 State of plane stress
o
• This condition of stress prevails, if in one of the three
pairs of parallel faces of the prism, the resultant stress is
zero.
o In Cartesian coordinate system,

z = zy,= zx =0 &
x, y & xy are constant in the z-direction.
; 2nd order stress tensor
2.1.6 State of plane strain
o This condition of strain prevails, if in one of the three pairs
of parallel faces of the prism, the resultant strain is zero.
o In Cartesian coordinate system,

z = zy,= zx = 0 &
x,  y & xy are constant in the z-direction.
o The above two dimensional formulations are an idealized
stress/strain representation of the real spatial condition
o Practical Problems
– Bearing capacity of a strip foundation
– Stability of a long retaining wall, and
– Stability of slopes, embankment
2.1.7 Cauchy‘s Law
o
• Let’s consider the stresses on arbitrary plane defined by
the unit normal vector, .
o Fig. Plane defined by the normal vector n

o Let the area of the selected plane be unity, the backside
areas A1, A2 and A3 will be:
o The internal stresses as defined before will define a stress

vector (surface traction) on the plane defined by the unit
normal vector, n.
o The traction vector has three components along the three

cartesian axes
•
Cauchy‘s law :
2.1.8 Principal stresses and principal axes of stress
•
o Combining the above eqns gives us the eigenvalue

problem:
o A non-trival solution of this problem requires:
o The above eqn may be rearranged in the ff form:

=0
2.1.9 Stress Invariants
o
• Consider the eigenvalue problem already formluated
o What happens when the reference system is changed?
o Let‘ pre-multiply this eqn by matrix a and introduce a

transformed principal dirxn by we obtain:
o Hence we understand that the principal stresses , , are

reference-independent or invariant quantities.
• =0
Since the solution to this eqn (principal stresses) are

invariant quantities, the coeff of the corresponding third
order eqn must be invariant quantities as well.
o These coeff listed below are called stress invariants.

o (First, Second and Third)
•
Example: Determine the principal stresses and principal axes
of stress for the ff:
,,;
;
2.1.10 Mean and Deviatoric Stress
o
• In the continuum mechanics theory we define the
deviatoric stresses, as:
Deviatoric principal stresses and principal directions
o A non-trival solution of this problem requires:
o The above eqn may be rearranged in the ff form:

=0
o
• Characteristic Eqn for deviatoric stress:
=0
o & recalling , one can deduce the ff relations:

2.1.11 Deviatoric Stress Invariants
o
• Recall =0
o In simillar manner we have first, second and third

deviatoric stress invariants.
o The deviatoric stress invariants can also be expressed

interms of the deviatoric principal stresses:
•o Furthermore,
Exercises
? The stress tensor σij is given by:
Calculate:
a) The hydrostatic stress and the deviatoric stress tensor Sij.
b) The principal values of the deviatoric stress tensor.
? Prove that:
2.1.12 The Stress Ellipsoid
o
• Cauchy‘s law gives us the traction on a plane with a plane
normal n
o If we let our basis to coincide with the principal

directions, we have:



o Since n is a unit vector, we know that
o Then we have:
2.1.12 The Stress Ellipsoid
o
• observe
o This equn describes a stress ellipsoid with the shape of an
American football.
o The surface illustrates the stress state in a material point
in the center of the ellipsoid by means of the surface
traction on any plane thru the point.
2.1.13 Octahedral Shear Stresses
o
• If we let our basis to coincide with the principal
directions, so that:
o The stress traction on a plane defined by the plane

normal n is given by Cauchy‘s law so:
o The normal stress is given by
o The shear stress resultant on the same plane will be:

o
• The shear stress resultant on the same plane will be:
Using the relationship
For ; we have
•
o These octahedral stress components are invariant

quantities as they are functions of the invariants and .
Maximum shear stresses

• Mohr’s Circle in 3D
o In general stress condition:
o For the special orientation of the principal axes, it

follows;
Mohr’s Circle in 3D
o Recall also:
• The above relations can be viewed as three equations for
the unknowns .
• Solving this system gives the following result:
• Ranking the principal stresses as σ1 > σ2 > σ3 and noting

that the expressions given above must be greater than or
equal to zero, we can conclude the following
Mohr’s Circle in 3D
Mohr’s circles of stress

States of Stress for Various Modes of Deformation
o Uniaxial state of stress
o Hydrostatic state of stress
o Triaxial state of stress
o Cylindrical state of stress
o Simple shear state of stress
2.2 Strain and strain invariants
o General Deformation
o Under the application of external loading, elastic solids
deform
o One of the basic problems in continuum mechanics is to
describe, quantitatively, the deformation that the body
experiences.
o extensional and shearing
deformation.
• An elastic solid is said to be deformed or strained when
the relative displacements between points in the body are
changed.
• This is in contrast to rigid-body motion (rigid translation or

rigid rotation) where the distance between points remains
the same.
• Rigid body motion will not cause strains.
• Strains result in change in length or shape within the body,

rigid motions do not.
• Only strains will result in stresses within the body.

o In order to quantify deformation, consider the general
example shown
o In the undeformed configuration, two neighboring
material points are identified by points Po and P
connected with the relative position vector r.
o These points are mapped to locations P’0 and P’ in the
deformed configuration.
• For finite or large deformation theory, the undeformed
and deformed configurations can be significantly different,
and a distinction between these two configurations must
be made.
• However, in linear elasticity, which uses only small

deformation (infinitesimal deformation) theory, the
distinction between undeformed and deformed
configurations can be dropped.
• Using Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), let us define the

displacement vectors of points Po and P to be uo and u,
respectively.
• Since P and Po are neighboring points, we can use a
Taylor’s series expansion around point Po to express the
components of u as:
• Since r is very small, the higher order terms of the

expansion can be neglected. Hence, we have the ff:
• The change in the relative position vector r can be written
as:
Index (or comma) notation for partial differentiation
• It is convenient to introduce the comma
notation for partial differentiation:
• In matrix form:
o Therefore, the above relative deformation can be written
in index notation as:
• The tensor ui,j is called the displacement gradient tensor,

and can be written as:
o
o Useful identity of tensors:
o The first term is symmetric, i.e
o The second term is Antisymmetric, i.e
o Thus, an arbitrary tensor aij can be expressed as the sum of
symmetric and antisymmetric tensors.
Remark:
o If aij is symmetric, it has only six independent components.
o If aij is antisymmetric, its diagonal terms aii must be zero,
and it has only three independent components.
o Hence, the displacement gradient tensor ui,j can be
decomposed into symmetric and antisymmetric parts as:
where ,
o The tensor εij is called the strain tensor, while ωij is referred
to as the rotation tensor.
o For small deformation theory, the change in the relative
position vector between neighboring points can be
expressed in terms of the sum of strain and rotation
components.
o One can also write the general deformation result in the
form:
o The analysis of strain is similar to the analysis of stress,
which have seen in the previous lectures. Hence,
every step would be identical after the substitution of
the,
strain vec tor  i : for the stress vector Ti
strain ten sor  ij : for the stress tensor  ij
deviatoric strain eij : for the deviatoric stress Sij
o Normal and Shear Strain Components of strain vector δi :
Cauchy equations
o Normal strain component:
o Shear strain components:

o Deviatoric Strain:-
• Like the stress tensor, the strain tensor can be decomposed
into two parts: a spherical part associated with change in
volume and a deviatoric part associated with a change in
shape (distortion).
eij is defined as the deviatoric strain tensor, which is pure

shear state, and
is the volume change or dilation.

In matrix form
Note: ε12 = e12, ε13=e13, etc.
Octahedral strains
Octahedral normal strain
o and the engineering octahedral shear strain is given by:
Assignment_2 (Due time ??)

? Define the invariants of strain tensor I’1, I’2, I’3 and the
invariants of deviatoric strain tensor J’1, J’2, J’3 .
Assignment_3 (Due time ??)
? For the strain tensor shown below
Compute:
a) the invariants of strain tensor I’1, I’2 and I’3.
b) the deviatoric strain tensor eij and its invariants J’2 and J’3 .
• States of Strain for Various Modes of Deformation
o Uniaxial state of strain
o Hydrostatic state of strain
o Triaxial state of strain(cubical and cylindrical)
o Simple shear strain
3. Two dimensional theory of elasticity
•3.1 Theory of elasticity in orthogonal coordinates:
• The stress equations are determined from equilibrium
considerations of an isolated prism of constant thickness in
the x-direction.
• The above couple of eqns implies that the change of the normal stress in
one direction must be balanced by the change of shear stress in the other
direction.
3. Two dimensional ... Cont‘d
o A close look at the above eqns: three unknowns in only two
equations.
o A third eqn should come from material law (Constitutive
rule)-Elastic Hooke‘s Law
3.1.2 Strain Equations
o The analysis of strain is essentially a problem of geometry. In
two-dimensional problems.
o The three strain components are x, z and xz, where xz is the
total angular distortion, while x and z are the normal
strains.
o The strains are derived from the corresponding
displacements u and w in the x-and z-directions, respectively.
o
Strain eqns
Sign conventions ???

3.1.3 Elastic Material Law (Hooke‘s Law) ... Cont‘d
o The generalized Hooke’s Law for 3D axial strains is
given by:
o Shear strains:
o Plane Stress Condition
o For plane stress conditions in the x-z plane, the normal
stress in the y-direction is zero.
o Plane Strain Condition

o In the axial strain in the y-direction is zero.
• The stresses at all sections in the xz plane are the same,
and the shear stresses on these sections are zero.
• ,
o Compatibility
Physical compatibility
Overlapping and generation of holes
Mathematical compatibility
o Compatibility Equations
o It has been mentioned earlier that the three strain
components can not be chosen arbitrarily.
o They should satisfy certain requirements.
o So that they yield single-valued continuous solutions for
the two displacement components u and w .
o These conditions are derived as follows:
• Differentiate the shear strain eqn wrt x and z.
o the resulting eqn from above is the condition to be
satisfied by the strain eqn that they yield displ u and w
that are compatible with the induced stresse.
o This eqn is known as the compatibility eqn interms of
strain components.
o If the normal strains are known then the shear strain is
found by simple integration.
o Compatibility Eqn interms of Stress components
Systems of Stress Equations
The two equilibrium equations and one compatibility equations
These eqns are necessar and sufficient for determining the stress
components.
o Boundary conditions
o Remarks on the material constants and the systems of stress
equations
Compatibility Equations interms of Airy‘s function
o The solution of stress distribution problems can be greatly
simplified if instead of the three equations in only one
equations is solved.
o Airy showed that all the three equation will be satisfied if
a potential stress function (x,z) is introduced.
Stress function
• For the plane strain condition, in order to determine the stress
at a given point due to a given load, the problem reduces to
solving the equations of equilibrium together with the
compatibility equation and the boundary conditions
• For a weight-less medium ( = 0) the equations of
equilibrium are:
o Let‘s introduce Airy‘s stress function, (x,z)

o The above equations will satisfy the equilibrium equations.
• When the above stress fns interms  are substituted into the
equilibrium Eqn, we get
• So, the problem reduces to finding a function in terms of x and z

such that it will satisfy the above single Eqn and the boundary
conditions.
o The above equation is a homogeneous partial differential equation
of the fourth order known as the principal biharmonic differential
equation for a two dimensional stress distribution in an elastic
medium with weight considered.
o As can be easily observed from the above series of equations, the
stress functions are determined by differentiation instead of
integration, if Airy‘s potential function is employed.
• Ex2-1: The stress at any point inside a semi-infinite
medium due to a line load of intensity q per unit length
can be given by a stress function
where A is a constant. This equation satisfies the

compatibility equation. (a) Find x, z, y, and xz, (b)
Applying proper boundary conditions, find A.
• Solution:
• Solution:
3.2 Theory of elasticity in polar
coordinates
o The study of stresses in spherical bodies, circular
foundations, disks, and other polar problems is more
conveniently handled using polar coordinate system than
orthogonal coordinate system.
o The fundamental relationships of theory of elasticity in

polar coordinates will be summarized in this article.
3.2.1 Stress Equations

o An infinitesimal element abcd, of a soil in polar coordiante
system is shown in Figure 3.3 with all stresses acting on it.
The two dimensional cartesian coordiante system is also
indicated.
coordinates
•
o The stress equations are derived from equilibrium consideration of

the infinitesimal element. The momnet euilibrium yields as
o The force equilibrium in the radial and tangential directions yield

the two stress equations: (Assignment: show these equations are
true)
coordinates
o As in the cartesian coor system, the strain equations are
determined from geometric onsiderations.
o The geometry of the displaced deformed, and distorted element,
a‘b‘c‘d‘, from the original form, abcd, is shown in Fig. 2-4.
o It can be shown that the following relationships exist between the

strain and displacement components u and  in the radial and
tangential directions respectively.
coordinates
3.2.3 Hooke‘s Materail Law:
o The Hooke‘s Linear stress-strain relaionships introduced in the
previous section in cartesian coor system holds true in here.
o Thus,
3.2.4 Compatibility Equations

o Compatibility Equations in terms of strain components:
o Elimination of the dislacement components u and  from Eqn....
Yields the compatibility equation in terms of strain components in
polar components:
o These equations were derived by Saint Venant and are called Saint
Venant‘s equations.
coordinates
o Compatibility Equations in terms of stress components:
o The compatibility equations interms of stress components are
obtained when the two-dimensional Hooke‘s Law of Equations (Eqn
3.18) is substituted for the strain components in Eqn 3.19. This
yields:
o Where in polar coordiantes,
is the Laplace Operator

o
coordinates
• Compatibility Equations in terms of Airy‘s Stress Function
o Neglecting the body forces F, the two equilibrium equations Eqn(3-
16) and the compatibility equation (3-20) are satisfied when
o Where  is an arbitrary function of the polar coordinates r, and -

the so-called Airy‘s Stress function.
o Substitution of Airy‘s stress functions from Eqns (3.22) into Eqn (3-
20) for yields the following compatibility equation interms of Airy‘s
function:
o
coordinates
• where:
o Eqn 3-23 is the biharmonic equation in polar coordinates.
o If the Airy‘s function depends only on r, the compatibility equation
simplifies to the following fourth order linear homogeneous
ordinary differential equation:
and the stress become:
o Inwhich a prime indicates differentiation wrt the radius r. The

general solution of equation 3-24 is of the form:
o Where A, B, C, and D are integration constants to be determined

from the existing boundary conditions.
coordinates
o The validity of 3-26 as a solution can be easily checked by inserting
it in the d.e. (3-24).
o The stresses follow from Eq 3-25 as:
o It is to be noted that only one equilibrium equation remains from

Eqn 3-16 that simplifies to (F=0, assumed):
3.3 Theory of Elasticity in Cylindrical
Coordinates
o Many stress distribution problems, particularily those
dealing with circular boundaries, are best amenable to
treatments with cylindrical coordinates.
o In this coordinate system a point is identified using the
coordinates (r,,z).
o Reference is made to Fig. 3-5 to develop important
relations between the cartesian and cylindrical coordiate
systems.
Coordinates
o The following relationships exist between the orthogonal
and cylindrical cooridates:
o The following relations are also important for future use:

Coordinates
3.3.1
• Stress Equations
A differential prism bounded by two horizontal and two radial planes
and two cylindrical surfaces is isolated and shown in Figure 3-6.
Because of the symmetry of the load-stress system
and the normal stress is constant and the same on the two radial
planes.
The stress components involved are then the three normal stresses
together with their variations in the respective directions and the
shear stress
Coordinates
o The equilibrium of forces in the r- and z- directions result in the
stress equations sought:

o The deformations in the radial and vertical directions are
designated by u and w, respectively. Because of the axial symmetry,
the cylindrical element of radius r at a depth z and having the
thickness dz is assumed to undergo the same deformation u in all
radial directions.
Coordinates
o
• Because of the radial deformation u, the circumference is increased
by The tangential strain becomes then:
o The other strain components are:
3.3.3 Relationships between Cartesian and Cylindrical Stress

Components
Coordinates
o
• 3.3.4 Cartisian Stress Components interms of Airy‘s Functions
Examples:
#1.
#2.
Exercises:
#1.
#2.
Exercises:
#3.
#3.
#4.
•
•
•
•
4. Energy Principles and Variational Methods
4.1 Strain Energy
• Surface (boundary) tractions and body forces will do work
on an elastic solid, and this work will be stored inside the
material in the form of strain energy.
• For the elastic case, removal of these loadings results in
complete recovery of the stored energy within the body.
• Development of strain energy concepts can yield new and
useful information not found by other methods.
• In order to quantify this behavior, the strain should be
determined in terms of the resulting stress and strain
fields within the elastic solid.
4.1 Strain Energy…
• Consider the simple uniform uniaxial deformation case:

• The cubical element of dimensions dx, dy, dz is under the
action of a uniform normal stress in the x-direction as
shown.
• During this deformation process, it is assumed that the
stress increases slowly from zero to σx, such that inertia
effects can be neglected.
• The strain energy stored is equal to the net work done on
the element, and this is given by:
• Using the strain displacement relations and Hooke’s law:
o Hence;
• The strain energy per unit volume, or strain energy

density, is specified by:
o Upon substituting:
• This result can be interpreted from the stress-strain curve.

• Because the material is linear elastic, the strain energy for
the uniaxial case is simply the shaded area under the
stress-strain curve.
• Next, we will see the strain energy caused by the action of
uniform shear stress.
• Consider the same cube under uniform τxy and τyx loading,
as shown in figure below.
• Using similar analysis, the strain energy is obtained to be:
• and thus the strain energy density can be expressed by:

• Results from the previous two cases indicate that the strain
energy is not a linear function of the stresses or strains.
• Thus, the principle of superposition cannot be directly
applied to develop the strain energy for a multidimensional
state of stress.
• However, from conservation of energy, the work done does
not depend on the order of loading application, but only on
the final magnitudes of the stresses and strains.
• This concept then allows normal and shear loadings to be
applied one at a time and produces an additive total strain
energy for a general three-dimensional state of stress and
strain.
•
• We know the ff already
 xy  G xy
 yz  G yz
 zx  G zx
• Combining:
• In index notation
• Bulk Modulus, K
• Lame Constants,
• Up on inverting the Hooke‘s material law, we have:
•  and  are the first and second Lame constants

• In matrix form:
• Now we have the generalized Hooke’s law written as:
• Reviewing the developed forms in terms of the stresses or
strains, it is observed that the strain energy is a positive
definite quadratic form with the property:
• This relation is valid for all elastic materials, including both

isotropic and anisotropic solids.
4.2 Application of strain energy in determining the
elastic bounds of soils
• Strain energy concepts allow us to generate
particular bounds on elastic constants.
• Consider the following three stress states
previously discussed.
• Uniaxial stress condition:
4.2 Application of strain energy…
• Simple shear
• Hydrostatic stress state

4.2 Application of strain energy…
• Experimental evidence indicates that most real

materials have positive values of Poisson’s ratio,
and thus 0 < ν < ½. This further implies that λ > 0.
4. Energy Principles and Variational Methods
Energy /Work
Work of a force on a moving particle
x3
f
B
A du
x
d
x+
u
x2
o Work done by xa1force:

4. Energy...
•
• Work done by a moment:
• Extend definition to material bodies:

• Total work is the addition of the work done on all
particles:
• by forces distributed over the volume:
• by forces distributed over the surface:
• by concentrated forces:
4. Energy...
• Work done by external forces: we will assume that external
forces don’t change during the motion or deformation, i.e.,
they are independent of the displacements.
• Work done by internal forces: the internal forces do

depend on the deformation.
• In general, the work done by external forces and the work

done by internal forces don’t match (we saw that part of
the work changes the kinetic energy of the material).
4. Energy...
• WE = WI would imply , which contradicts
equilibrium condition:
• Before the final displacement δ is reached the system is

not in equilibrium.
Complementary strain energy and complementary strain

energy density
4. Energy...
Potential Energy
• In Mechanics of Materials it is shown that the internal
energy density at a point of a linear-elastic material
subjected to a one-dimensional state of stress σ and strain
 is U = 1/2 σ(x)  (x).
• σ is to be regarded as linked to the displacement u through
Hooke’s law and the strain displacement relation  = du/dx.
• U is as defined before - the strain energy density.
• Integrating over the whole volume gives the total energy.
• The external energy due to applied mechanical loads pools
contributions from two sources:
•
4. Energy...
•Potential Energy
• The Total potential Energy of the system
• The displacement variables are the primary variables of the

functional. Note the independent variable!
• The Euler-Langrange Equation is
4. Energy...
Potential Energy
• Remarks:
– The concept of admissible variation is fundamental in variational
calculus
– Only the primary variable(s) of a functional are varied.
– Suppose that u(x) is changed to u(x) + δ u(x).
4. Energy...
•Potential Energy
• The functional changes from to + δ .
• The function δ u(x) and the scalar δ are called the
variations of u(x) and , respectively.
• The variation δ u(x) should not be confused with the
ordinary differential du(x) = u’(x) dx since on taking the
variation the independent variable x is frozen (δx = 0).
• A displacement variation δu(x) is said to be admissible
when both u(x) and u(x) + δ u(x) are kinematically
admissible in the sense of the Principle of Virtual Work
(PVW).
4. Energy...
The Minimum Potential Energy Principle
• The Minimum Potential Energy (MPE) principle states that
the actual displacement solution u∗(x) that satisfies the
governing equations is that which renders stationary
wrt admissible variations u=u*+u of the exact displacement

u*(x).
Examples
• Compute the strain energy density, strain energy, and their
complementary (conjugate) counterparts for the linear
elastic bar loaded axially shown in the Fig.
Principle of Virtual Displacements
• Consider a body in equilibrium. We know that the stress
field must satisfy the differential equations of equilibrium.
• multiply the differential equations of equilibrium by an

arbitrary displacement field :
• Note that the field is not the actual displacement field

corresponding to the solution of the problem but a virtual
displacement field.
• Interpretation of the second eqn above...
• Total virtual work done on the body:
• The integral over the surface can be decomposed into two:

• An integral over the portion of the boundary where the actual
external surface loads (tractions) are specified St and an
integral over the portion where the displacements are specified
(supports) Su.
• This assumes that these sets are disjoint and
complementary, i.e.,
• The virtual displacement field satisfy the homogeneous

essential boundary conditions.
• Hence, we will require that the virtual displacements
vanish on Su.
• The resulting expression is a statement of the Principle of
Virtual Displacements (PVD):
• It reads:
– The work done by the external tractions and body forces on an
admissible displacement field is equal to the work done by the
equilibrated stresses on the virtual strains.
• Example:
• Consider the bar under the tensile load P shown in the Fig.
• The PVD applied to this problem is:
• The second term on the left hand side is zero because

at the support.
• The only way that the last expression can be satisfied for any
admissible virtual displ is if
• This represents the equilibrium conditions at the boundary and

inside the bar.
• The solution of this problem is:
• Imposing the boundary condition:

5. Application of elastic theory in geotechnical problems
5.1 Determination of Elastic Constants
• The determination of the elastic constants for a given soil
deposit is done thru testing.
• Laboratory/Field Testing
Laboratory Tests
• Triaxial Compression Testing
• Direct shear test
• Ödometer
Determination of Elastic Constants ...
Triaxial Compression Testing
• A cylindrical sample of soil encased in a rubber membrane

is subjected to a hydrostatic stress.
• Sample volume change due to hydrostatic stress

application can be determined by simply measuring how
much pore fluid is expelled from initially fully saturated
sample for a given change in cell pressure.
• The cell pressure – volumetric strain relation will generally

be non-linear.
• The slope at the appropriate stress level can be used to
estimate the bulk modulus K.
• A distinction between normally consolidated and over-
consolidated states is important for bulk modulus
determination.
Over-consolidated soil:
• If subjected to high stress levels may exhibit relatively
elastic response.
• Many of the over-consolidated soils will be relatively

insensitive to sample disturbance hence good estimate for
bulk modulus may be found.
Normally consolidated soils:
• If subjected to higher stresses than the current in situ
stress, behavior will be nonlinear.
• undergo irreversible volumetric strain due to

rearrangement of the grain structure representing inelastic
behavior.
• Hence, values of K determined for normally consolidated

soils must be approached with caution.
• The deviatoric phase of a triaxial test provides more useful
information concerning elastic constants.
• The slope of the curve gives the Young‘s Modulus, E.

• The q versus ε1 curve is non-linear.
• As q versus ε1 curve is non-linear, conventional practice
takes E to be the slope of the secant that joins the origin to
a particular point on the curve.
• This point may correspond to the working stress level and

is often taken to be one-third of the maximum value for q.
• The other elastic constant that can be obtained from a
drained triaxial test is the Poisson’s ratio ν.
• Poisson’s ratio can be found provided that the sample
volume change is measured during application of the
deviatoric stress.
• Volume change measurement allows us to determine the
volumetric strain εv.
• The values of Poisson’s ratio and Young’s modulus will be
dependent on the cell pressure used in the test.
Direct shear test
•
Ödometer Test
• The second common laboratory test that offers
information on elastic constants is the Oedometer test
(or consolidation test).
• In this test, a uniaxial vertical compressive load is
applied on a thin sample, which is constrained from
expanding horizontally by a rigid ring.
141
• All deformation is vertical and the only nonzero
strain is vertical compressive strain 1.
• The corresponding stress and strain matrices are:
 1 0 0   1 0 0 
 
 ij   0  3 0 ,  ij   0 0 0
 0 0  3   0 0 0
 The volumetric strain v is equal to the axial strain

1. Hence, Hooke’s law gives the ff eqn.
1 E (1   )

 1 (1   )(1  2 )
142
• As the response is non-linear, and the above eqn must
be applied to some appropriate part of the curve.
• Note that a single elastic constant is not determined
here, but instead we find an algebraic combination of
two constants.
• Hence, other tests are necessary to provide more

information before individual constants can be
determined.
143
 We can observe one relation from the ödometer test.
The rigid ring surrounding the sample applies the
horizontal stress component 3.
 From Hooke’s law, we see that the ratio of the
horizontal to vertical stress is:
3  
 
 1   2G 1  
 Unfortunately, again the above eqn alone can not

be used to determine E and n because the radial
stress is not easily measured.
144
• .
Field Methods
• Field tests can be used as a complement to laboratory tests
or can be exclusively used when sampling and sample
disturbance appear to present significant difficulties for
laboratory testing.
• Two catagories of field tests:
– Correlative
– Deterministic
• SPT and CPT are the commonly used field test methods
•
• Deterministic
• Plate load test
• Pressuremeter test
• Dilatometer test
Wave propagation testing
• Elastic waves are broadly classified into two:
– Body waves.
– Surface waves
5.2 Fundamental Problems and Solutions
1. BOUSSINESQ'S
PROBLEM
• Of all the point load problems, the most useful in
geomechanics is the problem of a point load acting
normal to the surface of an elastic half-space.
• An elastic half-space is
bounded on one side and
extends infinitely in all 
other directions. For soils

r
the horizontal ground
surface is the bounding Elastic
side. half-space
• This problem was solved by the French

mathematician Joseph Boussinesq in 1878. 152
• The half-space fills the volume z  0 and is
assumed to be homogeneous, isotropic and elastic
• The point load is applied at the origin of coordinates on

the half-space surface and has a magnitude of P.
Cylindrical coordinates (r, , z) are most convenient
here.
• Latter we think of the half-space as a deep deposit
of soil and Z to represent depth below the ground
surface.
153
• The boundary conditions for this problem are:
1. Everywhere on the surface z = 0, except at the origin r = 0,
tractions are specified zero.
2. At the origin the stresses must equilibrate the applied load P
3. For any point in the half-space an infinitely distant from the

origin, the displacements must all vanish.
154
If we were asked to deal with this problem, we would set the
following behaviors of the solution to this problem:
• The solution must have radial symmetry. That means

nothing can depend on the  coordinate. Whatever 
we choose the solution must look exactly the same.
• The  component of the displacement vector u must be

zero. This is because if u is were not zero everywhere,
there would be torsion of the half-space. It is clear that
the point load can not cause any torsional motion.
 Hence, the expected displacement vector is the form:
u   ur , 0, u z 
155
• Moreover, ur and uz are not functions of .
• In cylindrical coordinate system, the displacement gradient

tensor is given as:
 ur 1 ur u ur 

 r 
r  r z 
 
 u 1 u ur u 
u  
 r r  r z 
 

 z u 1 u z u z 
 r r  z 
156
• If u is zero, and ur and uz do not depend upon ,
then u will have only five nonzero components;
the components lying on the two diagonals of eqn.
• Using Hooke’s law, the stress tensor will have the

following form:
 rr 0  rz 

σ   0   0    zz
 zr
 zr 0  zz   rz
z    rr
157
• The three normal stresses are given particular names:
 zz is the axial stress.

 rr is the radial stress.
  is the hoop stress.
• Note that only one nonzero shear stress is present.
• Boussinesq found the following solution for the

displacement and stress fields for the vertical point-load
problem:
P  rz (1  2 )r  P  z2 
ur     , u  0, uz  2(1   )  2 
4GR  R 2
Rz  4GR  R 
158
and P  (1  2 ) 3r 2 z  P(1  2 )  z 1 
 rr     5  ,       
2  R ( R  z ) R  2  R 3
R ( R  z ) 
P  3z 3 
 zz   5
2 R 
P  3rz 2 
 rz   5    zr
2  R 
 r   r   z   z  0
R r  z
2 2 2
159
• Considering the stress field equations and, as R becomes
large, all the stress components approach zero.
• On the boundary z = 0, zz and rz vanish at every point,

except at the origin of the coordinates. At the origin, the
stresses become singular, as expected for a point load.
• The distribution of zz for various P

depths beneath the half space
surface is shown in the Fig r
• The stress spreads laterally and

diminishes with depth.
160
 Next, considering the displacement field equation, as R
becomes large, both ur and uz approach zero, as specified in
the boundary condition.
 On the boundary z = 0, we have:
P (1  2 ) P(1   )
ur   , uz 
4Gr 2Gr
 The above eqns show that both displacements become

singular at the origin. This is also expected for point load.
161
• For cylindrical coordinate system, the equilibrium
equations are give as:
 rr 1  r  rz 1
   ( rr    )  f r  0
r r  z r
 r 1    z 2
    r  f  0
r r  z r
 rz 1  z  zz 1
    rz  f z  0
r r  z r
• If we substitute for the stresses, we will find that the above
equations are exactly satisfied where the body forces fr, f,
162
and fz are all zero.
2. FLAMANT'S PROBLEM
• In this problem, instead of a point-load a line load acting on
the surface of a half-space is considered as shown in the
Figure.
• The line load is similar to the point

load in that we have a finite force ,
e l oa d
acting on a surface of zero area, but Lin
now the load acts on an infinitely long P

x
line rather than on a point. y
A
z
• The line load is represented by P and
has dimensions of force per unit
length.
163
• This problem was solved by another French engineer Alfred
Flamant. Flamant was a colleague of Boussinesq and both
were students of Saint- Venant.
• Flamant used Boussinesq’s solution together with the
principle of superposition to solve for the stress field at a
point in the half-space. He considered the line load as
sequence of point loads side by side.
• Flamant’s solutions for the stress field at point A due to the

line load P are:
3 3
2Pz 2Pz
 zz   P/unit length
 (x  z )
2 2 2
R 4
R z
x A
164
2 Pn z 2 Pnz
 yy  
 ( x  z ) R
2 2 2
2 2
2Pxz 2Pxz
 xz     zx
 (x  z )
2 2 2
R 4
 xy   yx   zy   yz  0
• Flamant’s solution is considered as one of many
applications of Boussinesq’s solution.
165
3. KELVIN'S
PROBLEM
• This is a problem of a point load acting in the interior of
an infinite elastic body.
• This problem was solved by the 2P

Scottish physicist William
Thompson (who later became Lord r
Kelvin) in 1848.
Infinite
• Rather than P, let the magnitude of elastic body
the load be 2P. This will help later z
when we compare Kelvin’s and
Boussinesq’s solutions.
166
 Kelvin found the following solutions, written in cylindrical
coordinates:
P( 1   ) rz Pr z
ur   3 2P
4 ( 1   )E R 8G( 1   )R 3
z R
r ur
uz
u  0
P( 1   )  z2  P  2( 1  2n ) 1 z 2 
uz   3  4  2      3 
4 ( 1   )ER  R  8G( 1   )  R R R 
167
and
P z  3r 3  P  ( 1  2 )z 3r 2 z 
 rr   3  2  ( 1  2 )      5 
4 ( 1   ) R  R  4 ( 1   )  R 3
R 
P( 1  2 )z
  
4 ( 1   )R 3
P  ( 1  2 )z 3 z 
3
 zz    5 
4 ( 1   )  R 3
R 
P  ( 1  2 )r 3rz 2 
 rz    5    zr
4 ( 1   )  R 3
R 
 r   r   z   z  0
168
• A close look in to Kelvin’s solutions, we observe the
following:
• singularities at the origin where the point load acts
• both displacements and stresses vanish for large R.
• on the plane z = 0, all of the stress components, except for

rz vanish, at all points except at the origin.
• For the special case where n = ½ (an incompressible material),

rz will also be zero on the plane z = 0 and the part of the
body below the z = 0 plane becomes equivalent to the half-
space of Boussinesq’s problem.
169
• Comparing Kelvin’s solution (with n = ½) and Boussinesq’s
solution (with n = ½), they are identical for all z  0. For z  0,
we also have Boussinesq’s solution, with a negative load –
P.
• The two half-spaces, which together comprise the infinite

body of Kelvin’s problem, act as if they are uncoupled on the
plane z = 0 where they meet. We find two Boussinesq’s
problems wedded on the surface z = 0.
170
4. CERRUTTI'S
PROBLEM
• In 1882, Cerrutti solved the
problem of a horizontal point
load acting at the surface of an
elastic half-space.
• Boussinesq also solved this

problem, but did so after Cerrutti
without knowledge of Cerrutti’s
solution.
• The point load is represented by
P and acts at the origin, pointing
in the x direction.
171
 This is a more complicated problem than either
Boussinesq’s or Kelvin’s problem due to the absence of
radial symmetry enjoyed by those two problems. Here,
rectangular coordinate system is used.
P  x 2  R x 2  
ux  1  2  1  2    2 
P
4GR  R  R  z  R  z    R
z
P  xy xy  r
uy   2  1  2  2
4GR  R (R  z)  R  x2  y2  z 2
P  xz x 
uz   2  1  2  
4GR  R (R  z)  172
and Px  3x 2 1  2  2 2 Ry 2

 xx   2  R  y 
2

2R 3  R ( R  z ) 2
 R  z 
Px  3y2 1  2  2 2 Rx 2

 yy   2  3R  x 
2

2R 3  R ( R  z ) 2
 R  z 
3Pxz 2
 zz 
2R 5
Py  3x 2 1  2  2 2 Rx 2

 xy      R  x 
2

2R 3  R 2
( R  z ) 2
 R  z 
3Pxyz 3Px 2 z
 yz   zx 
2R 5
2R 5
• Examining Cerrutti’s solution we find the expected
singular displacements and stresses at the origin, while for
173
large R, everything approaches zero.
5. MINDLIN'S
PROBLEM
• The final two variations of the point-load problem were
solved by R. Mindlin in 1936. These are the problems of a
point load (either vertical or horizontal) acting in the
interior of an elastic half-space.
• Mindlin’s problem is shown in Origin of
the Figure. The point load acts coordinates
at a point located a distance z r
Free surface c
beneath the half-space.
R P c
• This problem is more complex R1

than Boussinesq’s or Kelvin’s or z
Cerrutti’s the other point-load
problems. 174
• It has found application in considerations of the stress
and displacement fields surrounding an axially loaded
pile and study of interaction between foundations and
grout anchors.
• In writing out Mindlin’s solution the origin of
coordinates is placed at a distance c above the free
surface. Then, the applied load acts at the point z = 2c.
We also have:
z1  z  2c
R2  r 2  z 2
R12  r 2  z12
• z1 and R1 are the vertical distance and the radial distance
from the point load.
175
• For the case of a vertical point load, Mindlin’s solution is
most conveniently stated in terms of Boussinesq’s solution.
• Consider for a moment the displacement and stress fields

in Boussinesq’s solution in the region of the half-space
below the surface z = c.
• These stresses and displacements are also found in
Mindlin’s solution but with additional terms.
Pr  z1 z  2( 3  4 )c 6cz( z  c ) 
ur    3  
16 ( 1   )G  R1 R 3
R5 
u  0
P  z 12 3  4 3  4 z 2  2cz  2c 2 6cz 2 ( z  c ) 
uz    3    
16 ( 1   )G  R1 R1 R R 3
R5 
176

177

 r    r    z   z  0
178
179
180
• Mindlin’s solution for a horizontal point load also employs
the definitions for z1 and R1, but now we must introduce
rectangular coordinates because there is no longer
cylindrical symmetry.
• r2 should be replaced by x2 + y2, and assume that the load
acts in the x-direction at the point z = c.
• The solution here is conveniently stated in terms of

Cerrutti’s solution, as the vertical load was given in terms
of Boussinesq’s solution. Thus, the displacements and
stresses to be added on Cerrutti’s solution are given below.
181
182
183
OTHER FUNDAMENTAL
SOLUTIONS
• There are other point load problems and their solutions.
These problems are generally not of such great interest in
geotechnical engineering but they may be useful in special
circumstances.
• One of these additional problems is the case of an elastic

layer resting on an elastic half-space with different elastic
properties.
P
x
Elastic
layer
Elastic
half-space
z
184
 This problem has two categories:
• Smooth interface between the layer and the half-space

implying different horizontal displacements above and
below the interface.
• Rough interface between the layer and the half-space

implying same horizontal displacements in both
materials.
 This problem with rough interface was first solved by Donald

Burmister in 1943 for the special case of incompressible materials
(n = ½). He later extended his solution for compressible materials
and multiple layers.
185
 Unfortunately, Birmister’s solutions are complex and difficult to
apply. In stead other simple approximate solutions for layered
soils are used.
 A second category of problems involves dynamic loads. In this

problems the load is a function of time.
 The simplest problem is a dynamic point load acting in the

interior of an infinite elastic body, the dynamic analogy of
Kelvin’s problem. This problem was solved by the Irish
mathematician George Stokes in 1849, one year after Kelvin has
solved the static problem.
186
 Another dynamic problem, which is the dynamic equivalent of
Flamant’s problem with a dynamic line load on the surface of an
elastic half-space has been solved by Horace Lamb in 1904.
 A third group of point-load problems are those involving

anisotropic or continuously non-homogeneous elastic half-spaces.
 The solution of a normal point load on the boundary of an

anisotropic elastic half-space was determined by the Australian
J. H. Michell in 1990. Michell considered a particular type of
anisotropy called transverse isotropy – where the elastic
properties of the body are the same in the horizontal x, and y
directions but different in the vertical z direction.
187
 Problems involving non-homogeneous elastic bodies were also
solved by another Australian, John Booker and his two co-
workers in 1985.
 These solutions apply specifically to elastic materials in which the

value of the Young’s modulus E increases with increasing depth
beneath the free surface, while Poisson’s ratio n remains constant.
Both point load and line load solutions were obtained.
 In summary, looking back over the array of fundamental

solutions, Boussinesq’s solution is the most useful to the
geotechnical engineer. It has the virtue of simplicity. More over,
the two most important stress components  zz and  rz, have
solutions that do not depend on either of the elastic constants.
188
 Following the publications of Boussinesq’s solution, engineers
throughout the world began to use it but most importantly it was
an easy matter to integrate Boussinesq’s solution over some regions
of the half space to obtain a solution for a distributed pressure.
 The simplest loaded region to integrate was circular, and the  zz

distribution in an elastic half-space subjected to a uniform circular
load became well known.
 Experiments were performed and comparisons between measured

and computed values of stress showed considerable differences.
189
 The differences resulted from two experimental difficulties:
• the inability to apply a uniform stress over circular region.
• and the use of a thin layer of soil to represent a half-space.
 Unfortunately, the differences were interpreted as a failure of

Boussinesq’s theory, and investigators set out to adjust the
Boussinesq’s equations. This was done by replacing the solution
for  zz by the following equation:
n
nPz
 zz 
2R n2
190
 Comparing this eqn. with Boussinesq’s result corresponds to
the case where n = 3.
3Pz 3
 zz 
2R 3 2
 The parameter n was called the concentration factor, and a great
deal of interest was focused on what value it should have for
different soil conditions. This approach was fundamentally wrong.
 A material governed by the eqn with n is inelastic for any value of

n except 3. For inelastic body, the principle of superposition is
inapplicable, hence integrating over a distributed load has no basis.
 Nevertheless, the idea of the concentration factor held on for many

years.
191
6. Application of the Fundamental solutions in geotechnical problems
• Interactive and non-interactive problems
6. Application of the Fundamental solutions in geotechnical problems
• Determination of stresses and displacements caused by
shallow structural foundations.
• The simplest and practical problems involve a uniform

vertical stress applied at the surface of a homogeneous,
isotropic, elastic half-space.
• The stress area could be regular geometric shape (circle or

square) , rectangular, or others with uniform or irregular
load distribution.
• Application of Boussinesq’s fundamental equations over

the region covered by the load through simple integration.
6.1 Uniform Rectangular Load
• The vertical stress at the point A at depth z below the
rectangular area of length 2a and width 2b, due to a
uniform vertical pressure p per unit area, can be
obtained by integration of Boussinesq eqn.
• 2a
p
2b x
y
z A (x,y,z)
6.1 Uniform Rectangular Load … cont’d)
•
5.3.1 Vertical Stresses Below Uniform Rectangular Load … cont’d)
•
6.2 Uniform Circular Load on Homogeneous Half-Space
 Such problem prevails in circular footings from
buildings or liquid storage tank like shown below
Liquid storage tank
 The problem can be represented as a vertical pressure p0

applied uniformly over the circular region R of radius
a as shown in the next slide.
197
198
 The displacements on the surface z = 0 for a vertical point
load, P are:
P (1  2 ) P(1   )
ur   , u  0, u z 
4Gr 2Gr
 The vertical settlement on the surface is usually the

most interesting quantity in foundation analysis.
 Now the applied load P should be replaced by the

applied stress p0 multiplied by an element of area dA.
 Consider the point exactly under the center of the

tank, then
dA  rd dr 199
 The contribution to the vertical displacement uz, at this
point is:
( p0 rd dr )(1   )
du z 
2Gr
 Integrating both sides of this equation, we find the

surface settlement at the center of any uniform circular
load.
2 a
( p0 r )(1   )
u z (r  0, z  0)    drd 
0 0
2Gr
p0 a (1   )

G 200
 consider the vertical displacement at
the edge of the circular load.
dA  sdds
s d
 The contribution to the vertical
displacement uz, at this point is:  r
( p0 sdds )(1   )
du z 
2Gs
 Upon integrating: 2a
( p0 sdds )(1   )
u z  

2Gs
201
 The limits of integration for  are –/2 to /2, while s
varies between 0 and 2acos.
 / 2 2 a cos 
p0 (1   )
uz   
 /2 0
2G
dsd
 /2
p0 (1   )

 /2
2G
(2a cos )d
2 p0 a (1   )
u z ( r  a , z  0) 
G
 This is less than the displacement at the center by a factor
of 2/.
202
203
6.3 Uniform loads of other Shapes, Homogeneous Half-space
 Consider the triangular-shaped load

with constant magnitude p0. This is a
right triangle and two sides are y
aligned with the x- and y-axes.
 We will first find the vertical settlement b

w beneath the corner of the triangle A a x
marked A.
 The point load here will be p0dxdy and the contribution to the
vertical settlement w will be:
204
( p0 dxdy )(1   )
dw 
2G x 2  y 2
 ba  x
p0 (1   )
a
 Integrating:
w  dxdy
0 0 2G x 2  y 2
y   ba  x
p0 (1   )
a
 ln( y  x 2  y 2 ) dx
0
2G y 0
p0 (1   )a  b b 2 
 ln  1  2
2G a a 
 
p0 (1   ) a 1  b 
Or w sinh  
2G a
205
 There may not be many real life applications for the right
triangle loading. But we can use the right triangular region so
effectively to build up, using superposition, a great range of
other shapes.
 For example, to find the settlement beneath one corner of a

rectangular load, we just need to put together two triangles.
The settlement at A will consist of two parts:
206
 There may not be many real life applications for the right
triangle loading. But we can use the right triangular region so
effectively to build up, using superposition, a great range of
other shapes.
 For example, to find the settlement beneath one corner of a
rectangular load, we just need to put together two triangles.
The settlement at A will consist of two parts: y
w  w1  w2 2
1 b
 where wl is settlement due to triangle 1: A a x
p0 (1   )a 1  b 
w sinh  
2G a
 where w2 is settlement due to triangle 2:

p0 (1   )b a
w sinh 1  
2G b 207
 Putting together the two parts:
p0 (1   )a  1  b  b 1  a  
w sinh    sinh  
2G  a a  b 
 For the special case of a square, set a = b, then:
p0 (1   )a p0 (1   ) a
w sinh 1  0.281
1
G G
208
w  w1  w2  w3  w4
w1
w2 w3 w4
209
6.4 Non-uniform Loads, Homogeneous Half-space
 Non-uniform loads arise due to stresses that are functions of

position.
 Here p0 will be replaced by p(x, y), a function of x, y over

some region R. The only difference from the previous
examples is that the elemental point load p(x, y) may possibly
complicate the integrations.
 As an example, consider the parabolic stress distribution

applied over a circular region. The applied stress is given by:
210
 r2 
p (r )  p0 1  2  for 0  r  a
 a 
 the surface displacement beneath the
center of the load can be determined
as:
2 a
p0 (1  r 2 / a 2 )(1   )
w(r  0)  
0 0
2G
drd 
2 p0 a (1   )

3 G
211
 Another example is the inverted
parabolic stress distribution. The
applied stress is specified by:
r2
p (r )  p0  p0 2 for 0  r  a
a
 the surface displacement beneath
the center of the load will be:
p0 a (1   )   
w(r  0)  1  
G  3
 The above two stress distributions are of special interest in
practical applications.
212
Rigid Foundations
213
214
215
Vertical Stress Due to Line Load
216
Vertical Stress Due to Line Load of Finite Length
217
Vertical Stress due to Strip Loading
218
Vertical Stress due to Strip Load
219
Vertical Stress below a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
220
Vertical Stress below a Uniformly Loaded Circular Area
221
Triangular loading on rectangular area
222
Approximate Methods for Computing Vertical Stress
• Two approximate methods are generally used for computing
stresses in a soil mass below loaded areas.
1. Use of the point load formulas such as Boussinesq's equation.
223
Approximate Methods for Computing Vertical Stress
2. 2:1 method- an average vertical stress z at any depth z is computed.
224
Exercise Problems for Tutorial
•
225
7. Analysis of Beams and Plates on Elastic Half Space
 The conventional approach, which assumes the foundation to be

rigid and the contact pressure at the interface to be planar.
 The rational approach, which incorporates the flexibility of the

footing as well as the soil contact pressure based on elastic theories
using modulus of subgrade reaction.
7. Analysis of …
 Beam: footing can be idealized as a beam (spread footings,
combined footings, strap footings, wall footings, etc.)
 Plate: (mat or raft foundations, circular footings, annular or ring

footings and footings of general shape which are two-dimensional in
plan supporting several loads from columns, walls, etc.).
 Even though several models for incorporating soil reaction in the

soil–structure interaction equations, the Winkler’s model is used
extensively in this chapter for detailed solutions and rational design
due to its simplicity in analysis as well as evaluation of the soil
parameters.
7. Analysis of …
• Analysis of footings on Winkler foundation model using analytical and
numerical methods has been carried out by several pioneers in this
area.
• The earliest classical works on the subject were due to Winkler

(1867), Hertz (1884), Zimmermann (1888), Reissner (1937), Hetenyi
(1946), Gorbunov-Posadov (1949), Seely and Smith (1952),
Timoshenko and Krieger (1959), Vlasov and Leontov (1966), and
several others.
• Some of the exact solutions available for beams and plates on elastic
foundations are presented here.
• The method of solution for general loads and moments acting on the
footing, is discussed in detail using the method of initial parameters
(MIP), which is very versatile (Vlasov and Leontev, 1966; Kameswara
Rao, 1969, 1971).
7. Analysis of …
Advanced Methods of Analysis
• Several solutions have been presented using numerical methods

such as the Finite Difference Method (FDM), Finite element Method
(FEM), Finite Grid Method, (FGM), the Runge–Kutta method and
iterative methods to take care of the problems not solvable by exact
methods.
• The most popular is FDM.

7. Analysis of …
•
,;
• The governing equations for the beam–foundation

interaction!
7. Analysis of …
• The exact solution for the above problem was presented
by Zimmerman (1888) and more comprehensively by
Hetenyi (1946).
7. Analysis of …
• where C1, C2, C3, C4 are arbitrary constants to be solved

uniquely from the total solution using the four boundary
conditions at both ends of the beam.
• Functions F1 to F4 are called the bases of the solution and

can be expressed from the proceeding equation as:
7. Analysis of …
• The more commonly used boundary conditions for the
beam ends are given below:
 Free end:
 Simply supported end:
 Fixed end:
7. Analysis of …
• For p(x)= p0=constant, wp can be easily obtained as:
7. Analysis of …
Infinite Beams on Elastic Foundations
• C1, C2, C3, C4 have to be solved

from the continuity conditions of w,
W‘, M
& jump discontinuity in shear force Q
7. Analysis of …
Symmerty
• Boundary conditions at x =0,

with symmetry of the beam at
x= 0, we have:
• ,
7. Analysis of …
• Knowing the deflection, the other parameters such as
slope,BM, SF and contact pressure can be written as:
7. Analysis of …
Semi-Infinite Beams on Elastic Foundations Subjected to P at
x=0
•
7. Analysis of …
• Finite Beams on Elastic Foundations
7. Analysis of …
• Finite Beams on Elastic Foundations …
7. Analysis of …
• Finite Beams on Elastic Foundations …
7. Analysis of …
Example:
• Obtain the responses of a footing subjected to vertical
concentrated loads as shown below:
• Modulus of elasticity of RCC beam =2.8x1010 Nm2

• Modulus of subgrade reaction (accounting for the rectangular
geometry of the contact area) of soil =35.28x106 N/m3
7. Analysis of …
Solution:
7. Analysis of …

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Course Name: Theory of Elasticity in Geotechnical Eng‘g

Course Code: CENG 6205

• Elasticity is concerned with the determination of the stresses

• A body under elastic deformation reverts to its original state on

• The focus here will be on linear infinitesimal elasticity.

• How do the real and idealized stress–strain diagrams for

• Why do we need to study easticity?

• Ideally, the mathematical characterization of a soil should be

• For any reasonable problem in geotechnical engineering the

• Usually constitutive models of soils are based on ES

• Drained and undrained conditions

• These include the cartesian, polar or spherical, and

• In soil mechanics theories the Cartesian coordinate system

o A face is positive, if its outward normal vector is in

o The normal stresses are described with only one

o Because soil does not resist tensile stresses,

– The first indicates the plane on which the stress is

– The second indicates the axis to which the stress is

– For the plot of MOHR's stress circle, a shear stress on a

o Because of equal but opposite stresses on opposite faces

o These are six shear and three stress components

o This reduces the total number of stress components

o In Cartesian coordinate system,

o In Cartesian coordinate system,

o Fig. Plane defined by the normal vector n

o The internal stresses as defined before will define a stress

o The traction vector has three components along the three

o Combining the above eqns gives us the eigenvalue

o A non-trival solution of this problem requires:

o The above eqn may be rearranged in the ff form:

o What happens when the reference system is changed?

o Let‘ pre-multiply this eqn by matrix a and introduce a

o Hence we understand that the principal stresses , , are

Since the solution to this eqn (principal stresses) are

o These coeff listed below are called stress invariants.

Deviatoric principal stresses and principal directions

o A non-trival solution of this problem requires:

o The above eqn may be rearranged in the ff form:

o & recalling , one can deduce the ff relations:

o In simillar manner we have first, second and third

o The deviatoric stress invariants can also be expressed

o If we let our basis to coincide with the principal

o The stress traction on a plane defined by the plane

o The normal stress is given by

o The shear stress resultant on the same plane will be:

Using the relationship

o These octahedral stress components are invariant

Maximum shear stresses

o For the special orientation of the principal axes, it

• Ranking the principal stresses as σ1 > σ2 > σ3 and noting

Mohr’s circles of stress

• This is in contrast to rigid-body motion (rigid translation or

• Rigid body motion will not cause strains.

• Strains result in change in length or shape within the body,

• Only strains will result in stresses within the body.

• However, in linear elasticity, which uses only small

• Using Cartesian coordinates (x, y, z), let us define the

• Since r is very small, the higher order terms of the

• The tensor ui,j is called the displacement gradient tensor,

o Shear strain components:

eij is defined as the deviatoric strain tensor, which is pure

is the volume change or dilation.

Note: ε12 = e12, ε13=e13, etc.