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Direct Current Circuits

Objectives:

• Define electric current and electromotive force.


• Definition and application of Ohm’s law to
circuits containing resistance and emf.
• Define resistivity of a material and
application of formulae to numericals.
• Define and apply the concept of
temperature coefficient of resistance.
• Determine the effective resistance for a
number of resistors connected in series
and in parallel.

• For simple and complex circuits,


determine the voltage and current for
each resistor.

• Apply Kirchoff’s laws to find currents and


voltages in complex circuits.
Electric Current
Electric current I is the rate of
the flow of charge Q through + +Q
a cross-section A in a unit of A
time t. t

Q 1C Wire
I  1A -
t 1s

One ampere A is charge flowing at


the rate of one coulomb per second.
Example 1. The electric current in a wire is 6 A. How many
electrons flow past a given point in a time of 3 s?

q
I  ; q  It
t I=6A
q = (6 A)(3 s) = 18 C
Recall that: 1 e- = 1.6 x 10-19 C, then convert:

 1e- 
18 C  18 C   -19 
 1,125 x 10 20
electrons
 1.6 x 10 C 
In 3 s: 1.12 x 1020 electrons
Conventional Current
Imagine a charged capacitor with Q = CV that is
allowed to discharge.
+ -
+ -
Electron flow: The direction
+ -
Electron of e- flowing from – to +.
e flow
-
Conventional current:
+
The motion of +q from
Conventional flow
+ to – has same effect.

Electric fields and potential are defined in terms


of +q, so we will assume conventional current
(even if electron flow may be the actual flow).
Electromotive Force
A source of electromotive force (emf) is a
device that uses chemical, mechanical or
other energy to provide the potential
difference necessary for electric current.

Power lines Battery Wind generator


Water Analogy to EMF
High Constriction Low High Resistor Low
pressure pressure potential potential
+ -
R
Water Valve I Switch

Flow E

Water Pump Source of


EMF

The source of emf (pump) provides the voltage


(pressure) to force electrons (water) through
electric resistance (narrow constriction).
Electric Resistance
Suppose we apply a constant potential difference
of 4 V to the ends of geometrically similar rods
of, say: steel, copper, and glass.
Steel Copper Glass

Is Ic Ig

4V 4V 4V
The current in glass is much less than for
steel or iron, suggesting a property of
materials called electrical resistance R.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law states that the current I through a
given conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference V between its end points.

Ohm ' s law : I  V


Ohm’s law allows us to define resistance R
and to write the following forms of the law:

V V
I ; V  IR; R
R I
Example 2. When a 3-V battery is connected to a light, a
current of 6 mA is observed. What is the resistance of the
light filament?

V 3.0 V
R 
I 0.006 A
R = 500 W
+ -
R
The SI unit for electrical I 6 mA
resistance is the ohm, W: V=3V
1V
1W Source of
1A EMF
Laboratory Circuit Symbols
A
+
V Emf Rheostat
-

Source of Ammeter Rheostat


Voltmeter
EMF
Factors Affecting Resistance
1. The length L of the material. Longer
materials have greater resistance.
L 2L
1W 2W
2. The cross-sectional area A of the material.
Larger areas offer LESS resistance.

A 2A
2W
1W
Factors Affecting R (Cont.)
3. The temperature T of the material. The
higher temperatures usually result in
higher resistances.
R > Ro
Ro
4. The kind of material. Iron has more
electrical resistance than a geometrically
similar copper conductor.

R i > Rc
Copper Iron
Resistivity of a Material
The resistivity r is a property of a material
that determines its electrical resistance R.

Recalling that R is directly proportional


to length L and inversely proportional
to area A, we may write:
L RA
Rr or r
A L

The unit of resistivity is the ohm-meter (Wm)


Example 3. What length L of copper wire is required to produce
a 4 mW resistor? Assume the diameter of the wire is 1 mm and
that the resistivity r of copper is 1.72 x 10-8 W.m .

D 2
 (0.001 m) 2
A  A = 7.85 x 10-7 m2
4 4
L RA (0.004 W)(7.85 x 10-7 m2 )
Rr L 
A r 1.72 x 10 W m
-8

Required length is: L = 0.183 m


Temperature Coefficient
For most materials, the resistance R changes
in proportion to the initial resistance Ro and
to the change in temperature Dt.
Change in DR   R0 Dt
resistance:
The temperature coefficient of resistance,  is
the change in resistance per unit resistance
per unit degree change of temperature.

DR 1
 ; Units: 0
R0 Dt C
Example 4. The resistance of a copper wire is 4.00 mW at
200C. What will be its resistance if heated to 800C?
Assume that  = 0.004 /Co.

Ro = 4.00 mW; Dt = 80oC – 20oC = 60 Co

DR   R0 Dt; DR  (0.004 / C )(4 mW)(60 C )


0 0

DR = 1.03 mW R = Ro + DR

R = 4.00 mW + 1.03 mW

R = 5.03 mW
Electric Power
Electric power P is the rate at which electric
energy is expended, or work per unit of time.

To charge C: Work = qV
Work qV q V q
P  and I 
t t t
Substitute q = It , then: I
V
VIt
P P = VI
t
Calculating Power

Using Ohm’s law, we can find electric power


from any two of the following parameters:
current I, voltage V, and resistance R.

Ohm’s law: V = IR
2
V
P  VI ; P  I R; P 
2

R
Example 5. A power tool is rated at 9 A when used with a
circuit that provides 120-V. What power is used in operating
this tool?

P = VI = (120 V)(9 A) P = 1080 W

Example 6. A 500-W heater draws a current of 10 A.


What is the resistance?

P 500 W
P  I R; R  2 
2
R = 5.00 W
I (10 A)2
Electrical Circuit Symbols
Electrical circuits often contain one or more
resistors grouped together and attached to
an energy source, such as a battery.
The following symbols are often used:
Ground Battery Resistor
+ -

+ - + -
- + - + -
Resistances in Series
Resistors are said to be connected in series
when there is a single path for the current.
The current I is the same for
R1 each resistor R1, R2 and R3.
I R2
VT R3 The energy gained through E
is lost through R1, R2 and R3.
Only one current
The same is true for voltages:

For series I = I1 = I2 = I3
connections: VT = V1 + V2 + V3
Equivalent Resistance: Series
The equivalent resistance Re of a number of
resistors connected in series is equal to the
sum of the individual resistances.

VT = V1 + V2 + V3 ; (V = IR)
R1 ITRe = I1R1+ I2R2 + I3R3
I R2
VT R3 But . . . IT = I1 = I2 = I3

Equivalent Resistance Re = R1 + R2 + R3
Example 6: Find the equivalent resistance Re. What is the
current I in the circuit?

Re = R1 + R2 + R3
2W
3W 1W Re = 3 W + 2 W + 1 W = 6 W
12 V
Equivalent Re = 6 W

The current is found from Ohm’s law: V = IRe


V 12 V
I  I=2A
Re 6 W
Example 6 (Cont.): Show that the voltage drops
across the three resistors totals the 12-V emf.
Re = 6 W I=2A
2W
3W 1W
Current I = 2 A same in each R.
12 V
V1 = IR1; V2 = IR2; V3 = IR3

V1 = (2 A)(1 W = 2 V V1 + V2 + V3 = VT

V1 = (2 A)(2 W = 4 V 2 V + 4 V + 6 V = 12 V

V1 = (2 A)(3 W = 6 V Check !
Sources of EMF in Series
The output direction from a - + b
a
source of emf is from + side: E
Thus, from a to b the potential increases by E;
From b to a, the potential decreases by E.
A
Example: Find DV for path AB -
and then for path BA. R
9V
AB: DV = +9 V – 3 V = +6 V 3V

+
- +
BA: DV = +3 V - 9 V = -6 V B
A Single Complete Circuit
Consider the simple series circuit drawn below:
D A Path ABCD: Energy and V
2W -
increase through the 15-V
4W 15 V source and decrease
3V through the 3-V source.
+
- +
C B E =15 V - 3 V = 12 V

The net gain in potential is lost through the two


resistors: these voltage drops are IR2 and IR4,
so that the sum is zero for the entire loop.
Finding I in a Simple Circuit.
Example 7: Find the current I in the circuit below:

D A  E = 18 V  3 V  15 V
2W -
R =3 W + 2 W  5 W
3W 18 V
3V Applying Ohm’s law:
+
- +
C B  E 15 V
I  I=3A
R 5 W

In general for a E
I
single loop circuit: R
Summary: Single Loop Circuits:

R2
Resistance Rule: Re = R
E E2
Current : I R1
R E1

Voltage Rule: E = IR


Complex Circuits
A complex circuit is one
containing more than a
I3
single loop and different
current paths. R3 E2
R1
At junctions m and n: m n
I1 = I2 + I3 or I2 + I3 = I1 I1
R2 E1
Junction Rule:
I2
I (enter) = I (leaving)
Parallel Connections
Resistors are said to be connected in parallel
when there is more than one path for current.
For Parallel Resistors:
Parallel Connection:
V2 = V4 = V6 = VT
2W 4W 6W
I 2 + I 4 + I6 = I T

For Series Resistors:


Series Connection:
I 2 = I 4 = I6 = I T
2W 4W 6W V2 + V4 + V6 = VT
Equivalent Resistance: Parallel
VT = V1 = V2 = V3 Parallel Connection:
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 VT
R1 R2 R3
V
Ohm’s law: I 
R
VT V1 V2 V3 1 1 1 1
     
Re R1 R2 R3 Re R1 R2 R3
N
The equivalent resistance 1

1
for Parallel resistors: Re i 1 Ri
Example 8. Find the equivalent resistance Re for the three
resistors below.
N
1 1
 VT R1 R2 R3
Re i 1 Ri
2W 4W 6W
1 1 1 1
  
Re R1 R2 R3
1 1 1 1
    0.500  0.250  0.167
Re 2 W 4 W 6 W
1 1
 0.917; Re   1.09 W Re = 1.09 W
Re 0.917

For parallel resistors, Re is less than the least Ri.


Example 8 (Cont.): Assume a 12-V emf is connected to
the circuit as shown. What is the total current leaving
the source of emf?

VT R1 R2 R3 VT = 12 V; Re = 1.09 W
2W 4W 6W V1 = V2 = V3 = 12 V
12 V IT = I1 + I2 + I3

V VT 12 V
Ohm’s Law: I  Ie  
R Re 1.09 W

Total current: IT = 11.0 A


Example 8 (Cont.): Show that the current leaving the
source IT is the sum of the currents through the
resistors R1, R2, and R3.

VT R1 R2 R3 IT = 11 A; Re = 1.09 W
2W 4W 6W V1 = V2 = V3 = 12 V
12 V IT = I1 + I2 + I3
12 V 12 V 12 V
I1  6A I2  3A I3  2A
2W 4W 6W

6 A + 3 A + 2 A = 11 A Check !
Short Cut: Two Parallel Resistors
The equivalent resistance Re for two parallel
resistors is the product divided by the sum.
1 1 1 R1 R2
  ; Re 
Re R1 R2 R1  R2

Example: (3 W)(6 W)
VT R1 R2 Re 
3W  6 W
6W 3W
Re = 2 W
Series and Parallel Combinations
In complex circuits resistors are often connected
in both series and parallel. R
1

In such cases, it’s best to VT R2 R3


use rules for series and
parallel resistances to
reduce the circuit to a
simple circuit containing
one source of emf and VT Re
one equivalent resistance.
Example 9. Find the equivalent resistance for the circuit
drawn below (assume VT = 12 V).
(3 W)(6 W)
4W R3,6   2W
3W  6 W
VT 3W 6W
Re = 4 W + 2 W
Re = 6 W

4W

12 V 2W 12 V 6W
Example 9 (Cont.) Find the total current IT.
Re = 6 W
4W
VT 12 V
VT 3W 6W I 
Re 6 W

IT = 2.00 A

4W
IT
12 V 2W 12 V 6W
Example 9 (Cont.) Find the currents and the
voltages across each resistor.

4W I4 = I T = 2 A

VT 3W 6W V4 = (2 A)(4 W) = 8 V

The remainder of the voltage: (12 V – 8 V = 4 V)


drops across EACH of the parallel resistors.

This can also be found from


V3 = V6 = 4 V V3,6 = I3,6R3,6 = (2 A)(2 W)

(Continued . . .)
Example 9 (Cont.) Find the currents and voltages
across each resistor.

V4 = 8 V V6 = V3 = 4 V 4W

V3 4 V VT 3W 6W
I3   I3 = 1.33 A
R3 3 W
V6 4 V
I6   I6 = 0.667 A I4 = 2 A
R6 6 W

Note that the junction rule is satisfied:

I (enter) = I (leaving) IT = I4 = I3 + I6
Kirchoff’s Laws for DC Circuits
Kirchoff’s first law: The sum of the currents
entering a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.

Junction Rule: I (enter) = I (leaving)

Kirchoff’s second law: The sum of the emf’s


around any closed loop must equal the sum
of the IR drops around that same loop.

Voltage Rule: E = IR


Sign Conventions for Emf’s
 When applying Kirchoff’s laws you must
assume a consistent, positive tracing direction.
 When applying the voltage rule, emf’s are
positive if normal output direction of the emf is
with the assumed tracing direction.

 If tracing from A to B, this +


A B
emf is considered positive. E

 If tracing from B to A, this +


A B
emf is considered negative. E
Signs of IR Drops in Circuits
 When applying the voltage rule, IR drops are
positive if the assumed current direction is
with the assumed tracing direction.

 If tracing from A to B, this +


A B
IR drop is positive. I

 If tracing from B to A, this +


A B
IR drop is negative.
I
Kirchoff’s Laws: Loop I
1. Assume possible consistent +
flow of currents.
2. Indicate positive output I1
directions for emf’s. R1 Loop I E1
3. Indicate consistent tracing E2 R2
direction. (clockwise)
I2
Junction Rule: I2 = I1 + I3 R3 E3
I3
Voltage Rule: E = IR
E1 + E2 = I1R1 + I2R2
Kirchoff’s Laws: Loop II
Bottom Loop (II)

I1
R1 Loop I E1
E2 R2

I2
R3 Loop II E3
I3
- E2 - E3 = -I2R2 - I3R3
+
Kirchoff’s laws: Loop III
Outer Loop (III)
+

I1
R1 Loop I E1
E2 R2

I2
R3 Loop II E3
I3
-E3 + E1 = I1R1 - I3R3
+
Four Independent Equations
6. Thus, we now have four Outer Loop (III)
+
independent equations
from Kirchoff’s laws: I1
R1 Loop I E1
I2 = I 1 + I 3 E2 R2

E1 + E2 = I1R1 + I2R2
I2
E2 + E3 = I2R2 + I3R3 R3 Loop II E3
I3
E3 - E1 = -I1R1 + I3R3
+
Example 10. Use Kirchoff’s laws to find the currents in
the circuit drawn to the right.

Junction Rule: I2 + I3 = I1 +

Consider Loop I tracing I1 5 W


clockwise to obtain: Loop I 12 V
Voltage Rule: E = IR 10 W

12 V = (5 W)I1 + (10 W)I2 I2


20 W
Recalling that V/W = A, gives
I3
5I1 + 10I2 = 12 A
6V
Example 10 (Cont.) Finding the currents.

Consider Loop II tracing


clockwise to obtain:
I1 5 W
Voltage Rule: E = IR
12 V
6 V = (20 W)I3 - (10 W)I2 10 W

Simplifying: Divide by 2 I2
and V/W = A, gives Loop II 20 W
I3
10I3 - 5I2 = 3 A +
6V
Example 10 (Cont.) Three independent equations
can be solved for I1, I2, and I3.
(1) I2 + I3 = I1

(2) 5I1 + 10I2 = 12 A I1 5 W


12 V
(3) 10I3 - 5I2 = 3 A 10 W

Substitute Eq.(1) for I1 in (2): I2


5(I2 + I3) + 10I3 = 12 A Loop II 20 W
Simplifying gives: I3
+
5I2 + 15I3 = 12 A 6V
Example 10 (Cont.) Three independent
equations can be solved.
(1) I2 + I3 = I1 (3) 10I3 - 5I2 = 3 A

(2) 5I1 + 10I2 = 12 A 15I3 + 5I2 = 12 A

Eliminate I2 by adding equations above right:


10I3 - 5I2 = 3 A Putting I3 = 0.6 A in (3) gives:
15I3 + 5I2 = 12 A 10(0.6 A) – 5I2 = 3 A
25I3 = 15 A I2 = 0.600 A

I3 = 0.600 A Then from (1): I1 = 1.20 A


Summary of Formulas
Electric Q 1C
current:
I  1A
t 1s

Ohm’s Law

V V
I ; V  IR; R
R I
1 volt
Resistance: 1 ohm 
1 ampere
Summary (Cont.)
Resistivity of Rr
L
or r
RA
materials: A L

Temperature coefficient of resistance:

DR 1
DR   R0 Dt  ; Units: 0
R0 Dt C

2
Electric V
Power P:
P  VI ; P  I R; P 
2

R
Summary (Cont.)
Rules for a simple, single loop circuit
containing a source of emf and resistors.

Single Loop
Resistance Rule: Re = R D A
-
E 2W
Current : I 3W
18 V
R
3V

+
- +
Voltage Rule: E = IR C B
Summary (Cont.)
For resistors connected in series:

For series I = I1 = I2 = I3
connections: VT = V1 + V2 + V3

Re = R1 + R2 + R3 2W
3W 1W
12 V
Re = R
Summary (Cont.)
Resistors connected in parallel:

For parallel V = V1 = V2 = V3
connections: IT = I1 + I2 + I3
N
1 1
 Parallel Connection
Re i 1 Ri VT R1 R2 R3

2W 4W 6W
R1 R2
Re  12 V
R1  R2
Summary Kirchoff’s Laws
Kirchoff’s first law: The sum of the currents
entering a junction is equal to the sum of the
currents leaving that junction.

Junction Rule: I (enter) = I (leaving)

Kirchoff’s second law: The sum of the emf’s


around any closed loop must equal the sum
of the IR drops around that same loop.

Voltage Rule: E = IR

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