Creep-Fatigue Interaction

(EN-613)
Instructor
Dr. Sumit Sinha Ray
 Course Structure and regulations
 Lecture based
 No experiments
 2 quizzes, 1 presentation, 1 final examination
 Quiz- 20 pts each, Presentation- 20 pts, Final examination-40pts
 Quiz- no open book (just can carry one page of formulae)
 Presentation- case based, single presentation, 5min talk+3 min questions (Maximum 8 slides)
 Final examination- No open book, may carry one page of formulae only if instructed
 No homework.
 PPTs are mostly for illustration and hence students are discouraged to read from PPT only and expect exam questions
from them.
 70% attendance is mandatory. If any student lacks in this criterion he/she must get permission from Dean Academics to
sit in final examination
Read- 1. Mechanical Metallurgy by George E. Dieter, McGraw-Hill Book Company
2. High Temperature Deformation and Fracture of Materials by Jun-Shan Zhang, Woodhead Publishing
and Other relevant papers.

Office hour - Thursday 4-5 pm, office A6-16. Meeting only, no phone calls will be entertained.
Course content before quiz 1 (tentative 06.09.18) Course content before quiz 2 (Tentative 11.10.18)

 Some basic about stress-strain  Creep Curve

 Elastic- Plastic behavior  Creep rate defining factors
 Plastic behavior of crystal and dislocation  Recovery Creep Theories
 Strengthening mechanism  Strengthening mechanism
 Fracture  Diffusional Creep

Course content before final (Not decided)

 All of the above

 Uniaxial and multiaxial creep models
 Fatigue and fatigue crack growth
 Case studies

Topics of presentation will be discussed 3 weeks before final examination and presentation date will be 15.11.18
 06.08.18, Lecture1

What is Creep?
Creep is tendency of materials to move slowly or deform plastically under mechanical stress, especially,
When it’s subjected to heat, close to their melting point.
The original Koror–Babeldaob Bridge of Japan was a balanced cantilever before after
prestressed concrete box girder bridge with a main span of 240.8 m and total
length of 385.6 m (1265 ft). And was the longest of its kind till 1985. Creep had
caused the midline of the bridge to sag 1.2 meters. Even with cosmetic
resurfacing and reinforcements the bridge suddenly collapsed on September 26,
1996.

What is Fatigue
Fatigue is mode of weakening caused by repeatedly applied loads, mostly cyclic loads and it’s progressive
in nature.

The semi-submersible “flotel” (floating hotel) Alexander L. Kielland capsized on 27 March 1980 while
bridge connected to the steel jacket Ekofisk Edda platform. The flotel lost one of its five legs in
severe gale force winds, but not an extreme storm. The accident started with one of the bracings
failing due to fatigue, thereby causing a succession of failures of all bracings attached to this leg.
Onset of Failure Analysis Studies
The Versailles rail accident occurred on May 8, 1842 in the cutting
between Meudon and Bellevue stations on the railway between
Versailles and Paris, France. Following King Louis Philippe I's
celebrations at the Palace of Versailles, a train returning to Paris
derailed at Meudon, after the leading locomotive broke an axle, and the
carriages behind piled into it and caught fire. The first French railway
accident and the deadliest in the world at the time, it caused between
52 and 200 deaths. The accident led the French to abandon the practice
of locking passengers in their carriages.

Hammurabi’s Code (1792-1750 B.C)

“ If a builder build a house for some one, and does not construct it properly, and the house
which he built fall in and kill its owner, then that builder shall be put to death” [Law 229]
If failure is considered as change in desired performance*- which could involve changes in
properties and/or shape; then failure can occur by many mechanisms as below.

Mechanisms / Methods by which a can Material can FAIL

Elastic deformation

Creep Chemical / Physical

Fatigue Electro-chemical degradation
Plastic Fracture degradation
deformation
Microstructural
Twinning changes
Wear
Slip Twinning
Corrosion Erosion
Phase transformations
Oxidation
Grain growth

Particle coarsening

* Beyond a certain limit

 Design &
Manufacturing

Testing Inspection

If one member fails there

Design to last without
is alternate path to
failure for life time
support load
Few Cases

Comet Aircraft (Design and Testing Problem)

The de Havilland DH 106 Comet was the world's first

commercial jetliner. A year after entering commercial service,
the Comets began suffering problems, with three of them
breaking up during mid-flight in well publicized accidents. Two
of these were found to be caused by catastrophic failure
resulting from metal fatigue in the airframes, not well
understood at the time. The other one was due to
overstressing of the airframe during flight through severe
weather. The Comet was withdrawn from service and
extensively tested to discover the causes of the fatigue failures.
Design flaws, including dangerous stresses at the corners of the
square windows and installation methods, were ultimately
identified
 Dan Air Boeing 707 Crash ( Design and Inspection Problem)
The 1977 Dan-Air/IAS Cargo Boeing 707 crash was a fatal accident involving a Boeing 707-321C cargo aircraft operated by Dan
Air Services Limited on behalf of International Aviation Services Limited (trading as IAS Cargo Airlines at the time of the
accident), which had been sub-contracted by Zambia Airways Corporation to operate a weekly scheduled all-cargo service
between London Heathrow and the Zambian capital Lusaka via Athens and Nairobi. Just before landing, witnesses saw the
entire right horizontal stabilizer and elevator assembly detach from the aircraft. The aircraft subsequently lost pitch control
and entered a nose-dive from about 800 ft (240 m) to ground level, destroying the aircraft on impact.

This plane had an enlarged horizontal stabilizer (tailplane) assembly compared to earlier model , and in the redesign the
increased loads on the tailplane structure had been taken by replacing some of the aluminium skinning with stainless steel.
In addition, the spar attachment fittings had been redesigned, making them both stronger and stiffer. This had the
unforeseen effect of changing the way the tailplane structure handled gust loads, the stiffer fittings being no longer able to
help in absorbing and transferring the stresses caused by gusts and other normal aerodynamic loads, the flexure (i.e., the
bending loads) of the left and right horizontal stabilizers instead having to be carried by the stabiliser spars entirely by
themselves. This led over time to fatigue cracking in the right horizontal stabiliser's rear spar, which, due to the concealed
(internal) nature of the tailplane construction, was not noticed by maintenance engineers.

The 707 had been designed to a 'fail-safe' philosophy, and failure of the tailplane rear spar had been calculated to be
insufficient to cause the loss of the aircraft, the remaining front spar being sufficiently strong to enable the aircraft to land
safely, the damage then being expected to be repaired before the aircraft was re-flown.
 09.08.2018, Lecture 2

Stress-Strain Relationship

Ultimate tensile stress

Fracture stress

Hooke’s Law

  E
E= Young’s Modulus

Plastic deformation
Rest from class discussion………
Basics of Stress

P
lim  
A 0 A

(Further class discussion)

 Basics of Strain

 L
e  Average Linear Strain
L0 L0
Lf
dL  Lf 
However often useful to express strain by instantaneous gage length    L
 ln  
 L0 
L0
Angular change causing Shear Strain True Strain

a
   tan() (=  for small angles)
h
Displacement of point Q Linear Strain
 8/14/18, Lecture3

Deformation

Rotation Translation Distortion

Dilation (change
(change in (change in (change in
in size)
orientation) position) shape)

Rigid Body Deformation Strain

Stress strain relations for small elastic stresses and material is isotropic
Plastic deformation is not like elastic deformation
 8/16/18, Lecture4
Flow Curve
Unloaded from point A Additional plastic strain: Hysteresis

Elastic limit

Stretched in one direction, then

compressed in other direction.
Recoverable elastic strain Yield stress in compression is less.

Helps is cold deformation Bauschinger Effect

Flow Curve

  K n K is stress at  1
n is strain hardening exponent

Highly cold-worked material Rigid ideal plastic material Linear strain hardening material
 L
L
dL  L
Conventional strain e True strain    ln  
L0 L0
L  L0 

Brainstorm: Why should we consider true strain, rather conventional strain?

Yield Criteria for Metals

Pure hydrostatic pressure or mean stress tensor doesn’t cause yielding in metals

Only the deviatoric stress which represents the shear stresses causes plastic flow

For an isotropic solid, the yield criterion must be independent of the choice of the axes, i.e.,

it must be an invariant function.

 Crystal

The unit vectors a, b and c are called lattice parameters. Based on their length
equality or inequality and their orientation (the angles between them, ,  and ) a
total of 7 crystal systems can be defined. With the centering (face, base and body
centering) added to these, 14 kinds of 3D lattices, known as Bravais lattices, can be
generated
Crystal Systems
Crystal Systems
Crystal Systems
 Things you have studied

 Miller Indices (hkl) : reciprocal of the

intercepts of the plane on the three axes

 Family of Planes: planes with similar

miller indices, like (010), (001) (100) are
denoted as {100}
 Things you have studied

 Crystal Directions: The directions in a crystal are

given by specifying the coordinates (u, v, w) of a
point on a vector (ruvw) passing through the
origin, denoted as [uvw], family of similar indices
planes <uvw>

 Inter-planar Spacing:

 2 h  k  l 
1 1 2 2 2
2
d a
 Things you have studied
 BCC vs FCC

BCC
Coordination number- 8
Effective no. of atoms –
1/8 X (neighboring atoms)+ center atoms
Atomic packing fraction- 0.68
FCC
Coordination number- 12
Effective no. of atoms –
1/8 X (neighboring atoms)+1/2 X (6 face atoms)
Atomic packing fraction- 0.74

4r
a
3 a  2r 2
 8/21/18, Lecture 5
Lattice Defects

Screw
Dislocation
Line
Dislocation
Imperfections Edge
Lattice Defects

Lattice Dislocation
Grain Boundary
Imperfections

Point Surface
Stacking Fault
Imperfections Imperfections

Twinning
 Dislocation
Responsible for slip, causing plastic deformation

Dislocation
C has moved
D hasn’t
one atomic
moved yet
distance
Edge Screw

Hope this video runs!!!! Dislocation movement - YouTube

 Edge Dislocation

Slip vector or Burger vector b

perpendicular to slip line
Screw Dislocation

Slip vector or Burger vector b

parallel to slip line
Straight slip lines in copper (500 X ).
Slip in perfect lattice

Position of 1: 0=symmetry
b=symmetry Shear stress is zero
b/2=symmetry
 Slip by Dislocation

Movement of
an edge
dislocation

Stages of W Interfacial energy

growth of
slipped region

W Elastic energy
 Peierls-Nabarro Stress (Lattice Friction)

Understanding the origin of the P-N stress:

 The dislocation is in a local metastable equilibrium → sits in a Peierls valley.
 Stress has to be applied to ‘pull’ the dislocation out of the valley (→ into the next valley)

A dislocation can be considered like a hollow cylinder, where stress and strain are smooth functions
of 1/r, r being the dislocation core radius and as r converges, the elastic stress and strain diverges.

A realistic consideration is
r0 ≥1 nm
 Peierls-Nabarro Stress (Lattice Friction)

Some discussion on P-N Stress

 P-N stress is derived from sinusoidal force-distance consideration, hence it is not of high degree of accuracy
 It does show that stress needed to move a dislocation is quite low.
 Near the dislocation line the stress fields and associated strains are so large that linear elasticity theory breaks down
→ this region is known as the core of the dislocation. P-N Stress is a sensitive function of the structure of the core.
 Different slip systems have different values of P-N stress

2G 2 w b 2G  2 a (1 )b

P  e  e
1  1 

Though the P-N original formula has been superseded by more sophisticated theoretical models and computational
calculations; it worthwhile noting that if the core of the dislocation is planar then the Peierls stress can be described
by an exponential function similar to the one originally conceived by Peierls. Additionally, a better feel can obtained
for the PN stress by connecting the width of the dislocation to the bonding characteristics of the material.
Critical Resolved Shear Stress

P cos  P
R   cos  cos 
A cos  A

Schmid Factor (m)

What is the similarity between P-N Stress and Critical resolved shear stress?

They both measure inherent lattice resistance to the motion of dislocations.

Stacking Faults
Stacking Faults

Introducing a hcp stacking in fcc sequence

Metals with wider stacking fault, hence
low energy deform easily
Strain hardening of single crystals

Effects
dynamic
recovery
easy glide
Dislocation Dislocation
Cross slip
pile-up barrier
strain
hardening
Bauschinger Foreign
effect particle

1
Sessile   0  Gb 2

dislocation
 8/23/18, Lecture 6

Detection of
dislocations

Chemical Visual

Decoration Electron X-Ray

Etching
by impurity Microscopy Microscopy
Dislocations

Screw type

Edge type

Dislocations often form a loop by interlocking and can lie in any plane and can easily be resolved in
edge and screw dislocation
Dislocations and cross slip
Positive edge

Right hand screw

Left hand screw

Loop expanding upon stress
Negative edge

Note: Only screw component has moved!!!!

Dislocation dissociation

b1  b 2  b3 if b12  b 22  b32

Solve!!!

Is this feasible??
Dislocation in FCC

FCC ‘ABC ABC’ stacking

Shockley Partial
Dislocation in FCC
Burger vector b1 can dissociate in b2 and b3 following the
previous problem, which is energetically favorable

Creates a stacking fault in ABCAC:ABC manner, by dissociating in

two partial dislocations : Shockley Partials
Imperfect dislocations

FCC ‘ABC ABC’ stacking

Frank Partial (Sessile
Burgers vector a/3 [111] dislocation)
Dislocation in FCC

Not a preferred plane

Lomer-Cottrell Barrier
Stress fields and energies of dislocations

If you remember this!!!

 It’s very hard to predict the forces near the core using our standard elastic
theory
 Our approximations are valid for a small length at a curved dislocation, whereas
curved dislocations have more energy than straight one

Consider a screw dislocation

No deformation in x and Y

Volterra Tube
Stress fields and energies of dislocations

 We do not consider any tensile or compressive stress in solving stress fields of screw dislocation. ( any idea why?)

Consider an edge dislocation

Volterra Tube
Cross sectional view

Largest normal stress is along x axis and shear stress is maximum for y=0
Stress fields and energies of dislocations

Total energy per unit dislocation length U Total  U Core  U Elastic

Few points to note

 Total energy of a dislocation is function of length
 The elastic energy is a logarithmic function of grain size (r1) . Then infinite dislocations should possess
infinite energy!!!! Is it possible??
 The elastic energy is also a reverse function of dislocation core

Hence a good approximation is core radius ≈ b

Forces on dislocations

Few points to note

 Dislocations moving on a glide plane only requires shear stresses
 Combined effect of shear stresses, resolved shear stress, will have its effect on direction of burger
vector

Direction of resultant force may not be same as stress

F  b
 Dislocation Climb Jogs/Kinks

Edge dislocation climbing up

 Thermally driven process
 Cluster of atoms move up of down
 Moves over a short distance, helps create jogs
 Important for Creep
 Doesn’t happen for Screw dislocation
Frank Read Source
Maximum stress for minimum radius of curvature

 Produces dislocation loops

 Enables cross slip
 Allows further dislocation loop
formation
 Doesn’t produce indefinitely for back
stress piling up

Double ended Frank Read Source

 8/28/18 Lecture 7
Strengthening Mechanism: Grain boundaries

Boundaries between grains are distorted regions in a polycrystalline aggregate only few atomic spacing apart.

Grain boundaries

High angle Low angle

GB dislocations : Major role is
creating step at GB or grain-
boundary ledge, to produce more
dislocations

Few atoms to belong both planes at GB, but most

belong to neither. The atoms belonging to both
grains are called Coincidence sites.
 When we have a polycrystalline aggregate the mode of
deformation changes abruptly to keep the continuity between
grains, in contrast to the single crystal deformation

Boundaries try to remain intact

Steep gradient of strain prevails from GB to grain

core (especially for coarse grain)
Geometrically Necessary Dislocations

As the grain size decreases, aka, the no. of boundaries

increases and strain increases, deformation becomes
homogeneous

Effect of boundaries become strong with reduced

grain size, hence strain hardening increases
 Grain boundary sliding

Beyond one-half of melting point, deformation by sliding can occur at grain boundaries and this become more
prominent at increasing temperature with decreasing strain rate, like in Creep.

The deciding temperature is called Equicohesive temperature, above which grain boundaries are
weak and below which grain interior is weak than grain boundary

Now question is- what kind of grain structure will you choose to tackle creep? Say for , some steel the melting
temperature is 1600 deg C and equicohesive temperature is 795 deg C. The material is supposed to be exposed at
900 deg C for most of its service life.
 Hall-Petch Relation

𝜎0 = 𝜎𝑖 + 𝑘𝐷 −0⋅5
Its’s a general relationship between yield stress and grain sizes, where, 𝝈𝟎 is the yield stress, 𝝈𝒊 is the friction
stress, i.e. the overall resistance of crystal lattice to dislocation movement, 𝒌 is the relative hardening
contribution of grain boundaries and D is grain diameter.

It was initially originated to formulate yield point dependence of low carbon steel on grain boundary size.

The biggest issue with this relationship is for a very small grain size of about 4 nm, this would predict yield
strength close to theoretical one. However, the pile up stress that is considered to derive this equation, must
contain more than 50 dislocations.

A more general model is 𝜎0 = 𝜎𝑖 + α𝐺𝑏ρ−0⋅5

𝜶 varies from 0.3-0.6 and 𝝆= 1/D
Low angle grain boundaries

Low angle grain boundaries are high energy boundaries those encircle
substructures inside grains

Edge
dislocations

Origin of LAGB

Crystal Growth Phase transformation

High temperature
Creep deformation
Low angle grain boundaries
Higher yield stress than just cold reduce or annealed
Yield point phenomenon

Carbon or nitrogen atoms in iron readily diffuse to the position of minimum energy
just below the extra plane of atoms in a positive edge dislocation. The elastic
interaction is so strong that the impurity atmosphere becomes completely
saturated and condenses into a row of atoms along the core of the dislocation.

When the dislocation line is pulled free from the influence of the solute atoms,
slip can occur at a lower stress

The magnitude of the yield-point effect will depend on the interaction energy, and the concentration of solute
atoms at the dislocations.
Solid solution strengthening

Solid solution

Substitutional Interstitial

Produces spherical distortion and Produces non-spherical distortion and

strengthens by a factor of G/10 strengthens by a factor of 3 G/unit
concentration

Solute Atom
Interaction

Stacking
Elastic Modulus Short-range Long- range
fault
 Strengthening from fine particles
Dispersion hardening
 Hard particles mixed with the
matrix
 A common practice in
hardening for powder
metallurgy
 No coherency between matrix
and second phase particle
 Can be infinite combinations
to strengthen by powder
metallurgy techniques
Precipitation hardening
 Second phase particle forms
solid solution at higher
temperature but precipitates
at lower temperature
 There is atomic matching
between solute and matrix
 Limited precipitation
hardening systems.
Cu-Al system
 8/30/18 Lecture 8

What is Fracture?
Fracture is fragmentation of solid body into two or more parts under stress

Appreciable plastic
Crack Ductile deformation prior to and
initiation during propagation of crack:
Observed in FCC metals

Fracture

Crack Rapid growth of crack with no

gross deformation (only small
propagation Brittle micro-deformation):
observed mostly in BCC and
HCP metals
 Fracture
classification

Strain to
Crystallographic Appearance
fracture

Shear Cleavage Fibrous Granular Ductile Brittle

Can be drawn to
Controlled by
Cleavage a single point;
tensile stress Surface Separation
Result of surface looks or can produce
acting normal fractured by normal to
extensive bright due to a necked region
to shear looks the tensile
slip by shear reflection of before rupture;
crystallographic gray stress
light Cup and cone
cleavage plane
fracture
Questions:
1. What is the maximum crack size that a material can sustain safely?
2. What is the strength of structure as a function of crack size?
3. How does the crack size relate to the applied loads?
4. What is the critical load required to extend a crack of known size, and is the
crack extension stable or unstable?
Cohesive strength of metals

Determine the cohesive strength of a silica fiber, if E= 95 GPa,

s = 1 J m-2 and ao = 0.16 nm.

Answer: 24.4 GPa

Stress concentration

For /2 and r=a

For ellipse

Let’s consider thin elliptical crack

in an infinitely wide plate. The
crack has a length 2c and a
radius of curvature at its tip of t. For t =ao
The maximum stress at the tip of
the crack max
Griffith theory of brittle fracture

Assumptions:
1. Material is already populated with cracks to raise stress concertation
2. As one crack propagates to brittle fracture it produces an elastic energy to overcome cohesive strength, i.e.
it requires surface energy as a function of elastic strain energy.

Griffith criterion for the propagation of a crack:

A crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic strain energy is at least equal to the energy required to
create the new crack surface.
 Griffith theory of brittle fracture

A decrease in strain energy results from the formation of a crack

The surface energy due to the presence of the crack is

Comparing stress concentration and Griffith idea

Stress concentration
Deciding
(recall previous class)
 Dislocation theory of brittle fracture
 Plastic deformation which involves the pile-up of dislocations along their slip planes at an obstacle
 The buildup of shear stress at the head of the pile-up to nucleate a microcrack
 In some cases the stored elastic strain energy drives the microcrack to complete fracture without further
dislocation movement in the pile-up

The stress concentration at the head of the pile-up is not relieved by

plastic deformation, then the tensile stress at the pile-up can be equated
to the theoretical cohesive stress
L is the length of the
blocked slip band and r
is the distance from
the tip of the pile-up
to the point where the
crack is forming

The number of dislocations in the slip band can be expressed as

Does not contain a crack-length term 2c.
Thus, the crack grows by plastic
deformation as long as the dislocation
source continues to force dislocations
into the pile-up
 Ductile fracture

 Appreciable gross plastic deformation

 occurs by a slow tearing of the metal with the expenditure of
Less studied than brittle fracture

considerable energy
 usually preceded by a localized reduction in diameter called necking

Void Coalescence

Void sheet
 Spherical particles enhances ductility and thereby
reduces fracture
 Fine rounded particles are resistant to void
formation
 resistance to ductile fracture (ductility) varies
greatly with orientation in a rolled sheet or plate.

cup-and-cone fracture
Effect of high hydrostatic pressure

 Triaxial compressive stress (hydrostatic pressure) resists fracture and increases the ductility.
 Hydrostatic component of stress exerts no shear stress, it cannot increase the number of dislocations in a pile-
up or squeeze them closer together.
 Compressive hydrostatic stresses act to close up small pores or separations at phase interfaces and generally
make the fracture-propagation process more difficult.
 High hydrostatic pressure does not suppress the fracture of carbides in Fe-FeC system, but it does reduce void
growth in the ferrite matrix
 Hot isostatic pressing (HIP), is used commercially to close porosity in castings and powder metallurgy parts and
improve the ductility and toughness.
 Notch Effect
Notch creates a local stress peak at the root of the notch. Plastic flow begins at the notch root
when this local stress reaches the yield strength of the material. The plastic flow relieves the
high elastic stress and limits the peak stress to the yield stress of the material. However, the
chief effect of the notch is not in introducing a stress concentration but in producing a triaxial
state of stress at the notch.
nominal< yield

Plane strain condition

x=0, x=0
for no constraint
at one side
x=0, x=0, 0 y : it takes a higher value of
longitudinal stress y to produce yielding in
a notched specimen
Plane strain condition
strong function of B
Notch Effect

Triaxial stress state produced by the notch results in general yield stress greater than the uniaxial yield stress s0
because it is more difficult to spread the yielded zone in the presence of triaxial stresses.

The triaxial stress state of a notch results in "notch-strengthening" in a ductile metal, but in a material prone to brittle
fracture the increased tensile stresses from the plastic constraint can exceed the critical value for fracture before the
material undergoes general plastic yielding

A notch increases the tendency for brittle fracture in four important ways:
 By producing high local stresses
 By introducing a triaxial tensile state of stress
 By producing high local strain hardening and cracking
 By producing a local magnification to the strain rate
Stress Intensity Factor

Where, =P/w.t

At crack tip
local stresses near a crack depend on the product of the nominal stress  and the square root of the
half-flaw length. This relationship is called the stress intensity factor K, K   a
 Mode I Mode II Mode II
• Crack opening • Sliding mode/ forward • Tearing/anti-plane /parallel
• Most important for design shear mode shear mode
aspects • Shear stress is applied • Shear stress is applied
• Plane stress/Plane strain normal to leading edge of parallel to leading edge of
type crack crack
• KIC for plane strain is more
important than plane strain
• Used to describe for fracture
toughness
Fracture Toughness and Design
Plasticity Correction

Plastic zone must be greater that rP

Because of apparent extra length due to total displacement

and lower stiffness, the effective crack length is expressed as
Crack Opening Displacement
Problem with linear elastic fracture mechanics: Works well for high strength materials, but it is less universally
applicable for low strength structural materials, especially when rP becomes appreciable fraction of crack length

The crack-tip displacement concept considers that the material ahead of the crack contains a series of miniature tensile
specimens having a gage length l and a width w

The fracture criterion is

Widespread plasticity at the crack tip enables the crack surfaces to move
apart at the crack tip without an increase in crack length. This relative
movement of the two crack faces at a distance removed from the crack tip is
called the Crack-opening Displacement (COD)