Instrumentation

Course 1
Instrumentation is all about
measurement and control
 Instrumentation
An instrument is a device that measures a physical quantity such as
flow, temperature, level, distance, angle, or pressure. Instruments may
be as simple as direct reading thermometers or may be complex multi-
variable process analysers. Instruments are often part of a control
system in refineries, factories, and vehicles. Instrumentation is the
study of measuring instruments used for indicating the process values
of parameters like Pressure, Temperature, Flow, Level, pH, Conductivity
etc.… It helps in selecting suitable Instruments for the required Process
in order to obtain optimum output. Instrumentation is one of the most
important Engineering branches available. It also includes a lot of
Physics which makes it more interesting.
 Process instrumentation

Is used in industrial manufacturing facilities, power plants, oil fields,

refineries to measure things like pressure, level, flow, pH, turbidity,
conductivity, temperature, humidity, force, speed and other variables in
the process, which is the fluid or material that is being treated or
manufactured as it flows or travels through the system.
Instruments also used for monitoring the correct operation,
performance & protection of the big engines & pumps like power
turbines, Boilers, generators, high pressure pumps heavy duty
machines...Etc.
 Control systems engineering;

Is used to automate the process by measuring the variables through electronic

instrumentation (inputs) and then adjusting various electrical or mechanical
controls (outputs) to achieve the desired results, or maintain the process within
certain set-points.
Any process plant has to continuously monitor and control four important
parameters.
1- Pressure
2- Flow
3-Temperture
4- Level
The widespread parameters monitoring in use
That is the most common & important variable parameters & there are
other parameters like , speed, vibration monitoring, force, pH,
turbidity, conductivity, humidity ,fire & smock & gas leak detectors
…etc. . Each of the previous parameter has its Owen specific devices to
link the output of the sensors to control room for monitoring &
adjusting the levels to the process requirements or to be adjusted
automatically by the instrument itself & inform the control room for
monitoring. This process will be discussed in details in the next
courses.
 To implement measurement & control
To implement the correct values for the previous parameters to meets the process
requirements we use the following devices which is called instrumentation & other
control equipment's to achieve the standard results for the industrial Process. The
control equipment's like
1- Valves
2- Pneumatics
3- Recorders
4- Electronics.
5- Control loops.
And others will be addressed.
 Principles & introduction
Now we will give a complete overview of the basic principles of
instrumentation and control (I & C) used for the functioning and
operation of industrial plants such as those involving oil and gas, power
plants and pharmaceutical products, water plants, food and chemicals.
First, we'll need to cover how to measure, so to measure we need a
measurement instrument.
 Pressure measurement

Pressure is defined as the analysis of an applied Force by a fluid (liquid) or gas on a

surface. Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area.
Many techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and
vacuum. Instruments used to measure and display pressure in an integral unit are
called pressure gauges or vacuum gauges. A manometers is a good example as it
uses a column of liquid in two sides used to measure and indicate pressure. So the
widely used Bourdon gauges is a mechanical device which both measures and
indicates. Bourdon tube pressure gauges are used for the measurement of relative
pressures. They are classified as mechanical pressure measuring instruments, and
thus operate without any electrical power., and is probably the best known type of
pressure measurement gauges.
We also experience pressure in the form of weather (or atmospheric pressure). This
could be considered the force being applied by the atmosphere on our heads &
body. As the atmospheric pressure changes, so does the weather. High
pressure usually refers to clear sunny days, while low pressure produces cloudy
ones.
Pressure units table
Pressure conversion table
Here below the pressure symbols which you will find in the
instrumentation drawings P&ID drawings.
 Pressure symbols
P: PRESSURE
PI: PRESSURE INDICATOR
PG: PRESSURE GAUGE
PCV: PRESSURE CONTROL VALVE
PT: PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
PIT: PRESSURE INDICATING TRANSMITTER
PIC: PRESSURE INDICATING CONTROLLER
PDT: PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSMITTER
PRV: PRESSURE REDUCING VALVE
PSV: PRESSURE SAFETY VALVE
PS: PRESSURE SWITCH
PSH: PRESSURE SWITCH HIGH
 Pressure terms
• Absolute pressure is zero referenced against a perfect vacuum, so it is equal to gauge
pressure plus atmospheric pressure.
• Gauge pressure is zero referenced against ambient air pressure, so it is equal to absolute
pressure minus Atmospheric pressure. Negative signs are usually omitted.
• Differential pressure is the difference in pressure between two points.
There are many types of devices to measure the pressure like
- Pressure gauges
Vacuum gauges -
- Differential pressure gauge which measure the difference pressure between two points.
- Manometers which measure low pressures.
- Pressure switches.
- Electronic pressure sensor like P/I & I/P transducers, Pressure transmitter, differential
pressure transmitter.
- Pressure recorders.
-
 Pressure terms
There are many types of pressure measuring devices which will be discussed later
in details.
Pressure measuring units:
Pressure is typically measured in units of force per unit of surface area. Many
techniques have been developed for the measurement of pressure and vacuum.
The International System of Units (SI) system using the Bar unit & its sub divisions
The Bar is represents one atmospheric pressure which is equal to
750.06 mm of HG Coolum
1019.72 mm of H2O Coolum
100000 Pascal
14.5038 pound per square inch (PSI) English system.
 Bourdon tube pressure gauges
Bourdon tubes are radially formed tubes with an oval cross-section. The pressure of
the measuring medium acts on the inside of the tube and produces a motion in the
non-clamped end of the tube. This motion is the measure of the pressure and is
indicated via the movement.
Example of the widely used Bourdon pressure gauge
Manometer
 Gauge pressure

Pressure measurement that measures the

difference between atmospheric pressure and
the absolute pressure is called Gauge
Pressure. To avoid confusion we normally
add "g" to the units of measurement
e.g. Pound per Square Inch Gauge (Psig).
Absolute pressure meaning
Vacuum gauge
Oil storage tank collapsed due to the vacuum
pressure
 Pressure transmitters

Pressure transmitters are sensors that generate analog or digital signals

based on the amount of pressure applied over liquids or gasses. Pressure
transmitters include an electronic amplifier and a pressure transducer in a
single package so that measured data can be sent to long distances without
introduction of electrical noise or loss of accuracy. For their use in process
automation industries, the transmitter harvests signals typically conformed
to a 4 - 20 mil-ampere standard. Pressure transmitters find varied application
in oil industrial projects, power generation projects, food & drinks, chemical,
and automotive industry. Pressure sensors in the power generation industry
are generally used for engine control ,lubrication system, fuel, oil, boost,
Pressure sensors also find applications in systems such as water treatment
plants etc.
 Pressure transmitter principle of operation
(resistive pressure transmitter)
The functional principle of a resistive pressure transmitter is very simple. The
pressure sensor converts the mechanical pressure value into a proportional
electrical signal. The pressure sensor typically consists of a stable main body
and a (thin) diaphragm. The diaphragm is the most important element for
the measurement of the pressure and is equipped with strain-sensitive and
compression-sensitive resistance structures, so-called strain gauges (DMS).
The diaphragm is deflected under the influence of pressure.
Thus, the strain gauges attached to it are elongated or compressed and its
electrical resistance changes. This change in resistance is directly
proportional to the pressure. For example, if the resistors are wired to a
Wheatstone measuring bridge, the resulting electrical signal can be
measured and transferred to an indicator
Resistive pressure transmitter
 Oil Pressure Senders & Sensors
The engine oil pressure sender/sensor is designed to measure the
integrity of the engine lubrication system. The sender/sensor responds
to changes in engine oil pressure, displayed via operation of the oil
pressure light or gauge.
The oil pressure sender/sensor must be compatible with the vehicle
engine management system; the Triton oil pressure sender and sensor
range has been carefully researched and engineered to operate within
original equipment manufacturer's specifications for each specific
application.
Oil Pressure Senders & Sensors
 Pressure transmitter
A pressure transmitter or pressure sensor is a device that measures pressure
in a liquid, fluid, or gas. Pressure transmitters are commonly used to
measure pressure inside of industrial machinery in order to alert the user
most of which are before a disaster occurs. They have many different uses,
industrial or automotive applications .
How a Pressure Transmitter Works
There are over 50 types of pressure transmitters that all work differently. For
example, pressure transmitters that measure high speed changes in pressure
depend on piezoelectric materials – materials that are capable of converting
mechanical force in the form of pressure into an electric current. Gauge
pressure sensors, on the other hand, depend on pure air pressure to move
an actual meter and can be calibrated to a specific atmospheric pressure.
Applications
Pressure transmitters are used in a wide variety of applications. They are used in
machinery to warn machine operators of high pressure levels before a disaster
takes place. Pressure transmitters also ensure that machines do not apply too much
or too little pressure during production. Pressure transmitters can be used in
conjunction with other devices to measure depth, altitude, water flow, and even
pressure loss in order to prevent leaks in a system.
Advantages
Pressure transmitters have several important advantages that other types of gauges
do not. For example, pressure transmitters directly measure pressure levels as well
as differences in pressure. Pressure transmitters can withstand virtually any
environment and can even be completely submerged. They are made of
piezoelectric materials, which are immune to both radiation and electromagnetic
fields. Pressure transmitters can also be connected to other systems, such as
electrical circuits, and can be calibrated to measure pressure relative to
atmospheric pressure.
Disadvantages
Although pressure transmitters can be advantageous, they also have several
disadvantages. For example, pressure transmitters are often expensive, although
this differs for each version
PRESSURE TRANSMITTERS
 Differential pressure

Differential pressure is a pressure that is measured relative to the

pressure in the atmosphere around it. The other type of pressure is
absolute pressure, which is measured against absolute zero, but is not
often used to measure pressure in real-life activities . Actually
instruments measure in differential pressure, which can then be
compared to atmospheric pressure to determine whether it is a gauge
pressure or a vacuum pressure. A gauge pressure occurs when the
measured differential pressure is greater than the atmospheric
pressure (p gauge= p-pa), whereas a vacuum pressure is the opposite
(P vacuum=pa-p). In both equations p is the system's absolute pressure
and pa is the atmospheric pressure.
 Differential pressure
Accurate measurement of pressure differential aids in various processes like flow
and liquid level measurement, filter monitoring and clog detection. For instance, a
high differential pressure may mean that there is a blockage in the filter. Once the
maximum value of pressure differential has been reached, the filter requires
changing, which prevents unlikely events such as damage or corrosion.
The most common applications of pressure differential measurement is in the
following industries:
Chemical plants
Petrochemical plants
Refineries
Water treatment plants
Power generation plants
Differential pressure transmitter
 pressure transmitter current loop
The output from a current loop pressure transmitter is independent
of supply voltage. However, it is important to ensure that the power
supply is able to provide sufficient voltage for all the equipment in the
current loop. For details on how to calculate the optimum supply and
best possible working loop
For example, when using a 4-20mA transmitter zero pressure will
produce 4mA output and full-scale pressure will produce 20mA output.
This is the ideal curve, but in practice there will also be a fixed null and
span offset to consider. For example:
Zero output is 4mA ±0.4mA
Span output is 20mA ±0.2mA (this is an example only).
In addition, you will need to add all the different accuracy and
temperature effects,
 Pressure instruments calibration
The pressure measuring instruments is used in various plants of oil, power
plants…etc. . . . . So the characteristics of that instrument will be changed due to
temperature, weather variation or electronics specifications variations, or the
process has new parameters .So we need to re-adjust this instrument to the original
setting or the new setting to be suitable for the new requirements. Using the proper
procedure to take the instrument out from the line then take it to the work shop.
connect it to a certain device called the calibration device or the calibrator. using the
correct procedure for calibration ( which will be seen in the advance course).
Regarding the pressure instruments the calibration devices is different from one
type to the other.
Here below some kinds of pressure calibrators.
- Manual hydraulic pressure calibrator.
- Air controlled calibrator.
- Electronic calibrator.
Each one used to calibrate a certain type of instruments . As will be seen in details
in the advance coarse.
 Pressure switch
A pressure switch is a form of switch that closes an electrical contact
when a certain set fluid or gas pressure has been reached on its input.
The switch may be designed to make contact either on pressure rise or
on pressure fall. Pressure switches are widely used in industry to
automatically supervise and control systems that use pressurized fluids.
Another type of pressure switch detects mechanical force; for example,
a pressure-sensitive mat is used to automatically open doors on
commercial buildings. Such sensors are also used in security alarm
applications such as pressure sensitive floors.
 Electromechanical Pressure Switches

The most common electromechanical pressure switches are composed of a

sensing element and an electrical snap-action switch. A number of different
types of sensing elements can be used but they have one thing in common:
they move in response to changes in the system pressure. Through their
movement they directly act on the opening and closing of the snap-action
switch’s contacts.
Differential pressure switches are slightly different. There are two pressure
ports, one for the low pressure side and the other for the high pressure side.
The low pressure and high pressure fluids act on the same sensing element.
Since the surface areas are equal on each side, the switch is in equilibrium
when the pressures are equal. As pressure on the high-pressure side
increases, or pressure on the low side decreases, the piston moves up and, at
a preset differential pressure, activates the snap switch.
 Solid-State Pressure Switches
In 1980, Barksdale introduced the first solid-state pressure switch. It was a simple
device which combined a gage sensor and electronic switch. Today, there are a
wide variety of solid-state pressure switches that have one to four or more switch
digital outputs, and full programmability points, digital displays, analog and
Poles types & Throw Pressure Switches
Differential pressure gauge,Pressure switch
Pressure transducer
Pressure transmitters & transducers
Pressure recorders
 Flow instruments
Flow measurement is the determination of the quantity of a fluid, either a
liquid, vapor, or gas, that passes through a pipe, duct, or open channel. Flow may
be expressed as a rate of volumetric flow (such as liters per second, gallons per
minute, cubic meters per second, cubic feet per minute), mass rate of flow (such as
kilograms per second, pounds per hour), or in terms of a total volume or mass flow
(integrated rate of flow for a given period of time).
Flow measurement has become a science in the industrial age. This is because of
the need for controlled process flows, accurate accounting methods, and more
efficient operations, and because of the realization that most heating, cooling, and
materials transport in the process industries is in the form of fluids, the flow rates
of which are simple and convenient to control with valve or variable speed pumps.
Its applications also extends to measurements in day to day processes like gas
stations, water service, and so on.
 Types of flow measurements
Generally flow is measured in two ways, volumetric basis and on the basis of
weight .The flow of solids are usually measured in terms of mass per unit
time or weight per unit time. Liquid flow is measured volumetrically or in the
basis of weight. Gaseous flow is normally measured volumetrically.
So flow Measurement is the process of measuring fluid in a plant or
industry. You can measure flow through a variety of different devices such as
differential pressure, vortex, magnetic, ultrasonic, turbine and positive
displacement meters. In some flow meters the flow is measured as the
amount of fluid passing through the flow meter during a time period (such as
100 liters per minute) whereas other flow meters measure the totalized
amount of fluid that has passed through the flow meter (such as 100
liters).Or could be contain both readings in one flow meter which is widely
used in the present time & you can select which reading you need.
 Types of flow measurements
Transducer and transmitter are the primary devices of a flow meter. The
fluid that passes through the primary device are sensed by the transducer
while the transmitter produces a usable flow signal from the raw transducer
signal. These components are often combined, so the actual flow meter may
be one or more physical devices.
Measurement is accomplished by a variety of means, depending upon the
quantities, flow rates, and types of fluids involved. Many industrial process
flow measurements consist of a combination of two devices: a primary
device that is placed in direct contact with the fluid and generates a signal,
and a secondary device that translates this signal into a motion or a
secondary signal for indicating, recording, controlling, or totalizing the flow.
Other devices indicate or totalize the flow directly through the interaction of
the flowing fluid and the measuring device that is placed directly or
indirectly in contact with the fluid stream.
 Types of flow transmitters
Depending upon the techniques of measurement the flow meters are generally categorized as
below:
- Volumetric flow meters.
1- Differential Head type.
Orifice plates.
Venturi meters. A & B the most used types in the differential head type meters.
2- Differential Area type (Rotameters).
3- Electromagnetic flowmeter.
4- Vortex flowmeter.
5- Ultrasonic flowmeter.
6- Turbine flowmeter.
7- Positive displacement flowmeter.
Other types will be discussed later.
Flow units
 orifice plates flow meters
Orifice plates are still the most widely used type of
flowmeter in the world today. They offer significant cost
benefits over other types of flowmeter, especially in
larger line sizes, and have proved to be rugged, effective
and reliable over many years. Where a need exists for a
rugged, cost effective flowmeter which has a low
installation cost and a turndown of not more than 4:1,
the orifice plate continues to offer a very competitive
solution.
An orifice plate installed in a line creates a pressure
pressure is measured via impulse lines by a differential
pressure transmitter which converts it into an analogue
or digital signal which can be processed to provide a
display of the instantaneous rate of flow. The
relationship between the rate of flow and the differential
pressure produced is very well understood and is fully
covered by comprehensive national standards. The
relevant standards are BS 1042 and the equivalent
ISO 5167. One of the principle advantages of orifice
plates manufactured and installed following these
standards is that they do not require calibration. This
means that orifice plates are very cost effective on
larger line sizes.
 Orifice plate with flow meter
In this type of differential pressure flow meters the principle of flow measurement
is the pressure different between the inlet pressure (upstream) & the outlet
pressure (downstream) & the orifice diameter
Orifice plate with flow meter
 Venture flow meter
The differential producing flowmeter or Venturi has a long history of uses in many
applications. Due to its simplicity and dependability, the Venturi is among the most
common flowmeters. With no moving parts or abrupt flow restrictions, the Venturi
can measure fluid flowrates with a minimal total pressure loss.
A venturi tube measures flow rates by constricting fluids and measuring a
differential pressure drop. In the upstream cone of the Venturi meter, velocity is
increased, pressure is decreased. Pressure drop in the upstream cone is utilized to
measure the rate of flow through the instrument.
The principle behind the operation of the Venturi flowmeter is the Bernoulli effect.
The Venturi measures a fluid's flowrate by reducing the cross sectional flow area in
the flow path and generating a pressure difference. After the pressure difference is
generated, the fluid is passed through a pressure recovery exit section where up to
80% of the differential pressure generated at the throat is recovered.
Venture flow meter
 Rotameters are a particular kind of flowmeter, based on the variable area principle. They provide
a simple, precise and economical means of indicating flow rates in fluid systems.
This variable area principle consists of three basic elements: A uniformly tapered flow tube, a float,
and a measurement scale. A control valve may be added if flow control is also desired. In operation,
the rotameter is positioned vertically in the fluid system with the smallest diameter end of the
tapered flow tube at the bottom. This is the fluid inlet. The float, typically spherical, is located inside
the flow tube, and is engineered so that its diameter is nearly identical to the flow tube’s inlet
diameter.
When fluid — gas or liquid — is introduced into the tube, the float is lifted from its initial position at
the inlet, allowing the fluid to pass between it and the tube wall. As the float rises, more and more
fluid flows by the float because the tapered tube’s diameter is increasing. Ultimately, a point is
reached where the flow area is large enough to allow the entire volume of the fluid to flow past the
float. This flow area is called the annular passage. The float is now stationary at that level within the
tube as its weight is being supported by the fluid forces which caused it to rise. This position
corresponds to a point on the tube’s measurement scale and provides an indication of the fluid’s
flow rate.
One way to change the capacity or flow range of a rotameter is to change the float
material, and thus its density, while keeping the flow tube and float size constant. Floats
which are made from less dense materials will rise higher in the tube and therefore will
produce lower flow capacities for the same diameter flow tube.
 Electromagnetic flowmeters

Magnetic flow meters are often selected because they are

obstructionless, cost-effective for aggressive chemicals and slurries and
provide highly accurate volumetric flow measurement. A range of liner
materials, electrode options and line sizes accommodate a wide variety of
process applications.
Additionally, magnetic meters are beneficial in that they can measure fluids
bi-directionally, are effective for both very low and high volume flow rates
and are immune to changes in process variables.
Electromagnetic flow meters, or magmeters, are comprised of a transmitter
and sensor that together measure flow. The magnetic flow meter’s sensor is
placed inline and measures an induced voltage generated by the fluid as it
flows through a pipe. The transmitter takes the voltage generated by the
sensor, converts the voltage into a flow measurement and transmits that
flow measurement to a control system.
 Electromagnetic flowmeters

A magmeter utilizes a set of coils and a pair of electrodes for flow measurement.
The meter’s coils are driven by the transmitter with an applied current. Once
powered, a magnetic field is formed between both coils. When the pipe is full and
the fluid begins to flow, the force of the magnetic field causes the negatively and
positively charged particles of the fluid to separate as they pass through the
magnetic field. This separation causes an induced voltage between the electrodes
The flow principle behind magnetic flow meters is known as Faraday’s Law,
mathematically defined as E=k*B*D*V. The induced voltage (E) is directly
proportional to the velocity (V) of the fluid moving through the magnetic field (B).
The induced voltage is carried to the transmitter through the electrode circuit. The
transmitter then converts this voltage into a quantifiable flow velocity. The
volumetric flow rate of the fluid is calculated using this known velocity along with
the area of the pipe. and sensor.
Electromagnetic flowmeters
Electromagnetic flowmeters
 vortex flow meter

A vortex flow meter is a flow measurement device best suited for flow
measurements where the introduction of moving parts presents problems.
They are available in industrial grade. Sensitivity to variations in the process
conditions are low and with no moving parts have relatively low wear
compared to other types of flow meters.
Vortex flow meters operate under the vortex shedding principle, where an
oscillating vortexes occur when a fluid such as water flow past a bluff (as
opposed to streamlined) body. The frequency that the vortexes are shed
depend on the size and shape of the body. It is ideal for applications where
low maintenance costs are important. Industrial size vortex meters are
custom built and require appropriate sizing for specific applications.
 vortex flow meter

When the medium flows through the Bluff body at a certain speed , an
alternately arranged vortex belt is generated behind the sides of the Bluff
body , called the "Carmen vortex". Since both sides of the vortex generator
alternately generate the vortex , the pressure pulsation is generated on both
sides of the generator,which makes the detector produce alternating
stress.The piezoelectric transducer element (pressure to electric
transformer) encapsulated in the detection probe body generates an
alternating charge signal with the same frequency as the vortex , under the
action of alternating stress . The signal is sent to the intelligent flow totalizer
to be processed after being amplified by the pre-amplifier , realizing
displaying instantaneous flow and cumulative flow of fluid , communicating
and controlling of flow data and the microcomputer system.
vortex flow meter
 Ultrasonic flow meter
An ultrasonic flow meter (Doppler flow meters) is a volumetric flow meter which requires
particles or bubbles in the flow. Ultrasonic flow meters are ideal for wastewater
applications or any dirty liquid which is conductive or water based. Ultrasonic flow meters
will generally not work with distilled water or drinking water. Ultrasonic flow meters are
also ideal for applications where low pressure drop.
Principle of operation
The basic principle of operation employs the frequency shift (Doppler Effect) of an
ultrasonic signal when it is reflected by suspended particles or gas bubbles (discontinuities)
in motion. This metering technique utilizes the physical phenomenon of a sound wave that
changes frequency when it is reflected by moving discontinuities in a flowing liquid.
Ultrasonic sound is transmitted into a pipe with flowing liquids, and the discontinuities
reflect the ultrasonic wave with a slightly different frequency that is directly proportional
to the rate of flow of the liquid. Current technology requires that the liquid contain at least
100 parts per million (PPM) of 100 micron or larger suspended particles or bubbles.
and low maintenance are required.
 Ultrasonic flow meter
Ultrasonic flow meters come in either single or dual-sensor versions.
In the single-sensor version, the transmit and receive crystals are
potted into the same sensor body, which is clamped onto a single point
of the pipe surface. A coupling compound is used to ultrasonically
connect the sensor to the pipe. In the dual sensor version, the transmit
crystal is in one sensor body, while the receive crystal is in another.
Ultrasonic flow meters are mostly used in oil and gas industries. They
are also used in chemical, pharmaceutical, food and beverage, metal,
mining, paper and wastewater industries.
Ultrasonic flow meter
 Turbine flow meter
A turbine flow meter is constructed with rotor and blades that use the
mechanical energy of the fluid to rotate the rotor in the flow stream. Blades
on the rotor are angled to transform energy from the flow stream into
rotational energy. The rotor shaft spins on bearings: when the fluid moves
faster, the rotor spins proportionally faster. Shaft rotation can be sensed
mechanically or by detecting the movement of the rotor blades.
Rotor movement is often detected magnetically, where movement of the
rotor generates a pulse. When the fluid moves faster, more pulses are
generated. Turbine flow meter sensors detecting the pulse are typically
located external to the flowing stream to avoid material of construction
constraints that would result if wetted sensors were used. The RPM of the
turbine wheel is directly proportional to the mean flow velocity within the
tube diameter and corresponds to the volume flow over a wide range.
 Turbine flow meter
A flow transmitter processes the pulse signal to determine the flow of the
fluid. Flow transmitter and sensing systems are available to sense flow in
both the forward and reverse flow directions. High accuracy turbine
flowmeters are available for custody transfer of hydrocarbons and natural
gas. This fuel flow meter often incorporates the functionality of a flow
computer to correct for pressure, temperature, and fluid properties in order
to achieve the desired accuracy for the custody transfer application.
Care should be taken when using a turbine flow meter on fluids that are non-
lubricating because the flowmeter can become inaccurate and fail if its
bearings prematurely wear. A turbine flow meter can be outfitted with
grease fittings for applications with non-lubricating fluids. In addition, a
turbine flow meter that is designed for a specific purpose, such as natural
gas service, can often operate over a limited range of temperatures (such as
up to 80ºC) whereby operation at higher temperatures can damage the
flowmeter
 Positive displacement flow meter
Positive displacement flowmeters, sometimes known as PD meters,
have been around for more than 100 years. They are commonly used in
a wide range of applications from home water measurement to
measuring ultra flow rates of chemical at high pressures .
First off - what is a 'positive displacement' meter? Well, as the name
suggests it involves the positive displacement of a volume of fluid - this
is usually a liquid but there are some units suitable for gas. There is a
chamber and inside the chamber, obstructing the flow, is a rotor.
The shape of the rotor and chamber vary greatly with each meter type
but they all provide an output for each rotation. Most meter designs
therefore lend themselves to being totalisers. Most can have the flow
rate calculated from this primary data
Advantages
An accurate PD meter will have minimal 'leakage' across the rotor seal. This
is generally minimised with the use of more viscous liquids and Because they
measure a volume precisely it does not matter if the flow is pulsing. They will
follow the increase and decrease of flow accuracies Most meters are simple
to maintain as they have only one or two moving parts and are coupled with
understood in the field.of +/-0.1per cent are simple readouts that are easily
sometimes quoted
There is no requirement for straight pipe lengths like that might be needed
for electromagnetic or turbine devices. They can be connected directly to
elbows or valves and in most cases in a variety of orientations.
Designs are relatively easy to adapt for high pressure applications eg over
100 bar
Disadvantages
All PD meters require clean fluid so a filtration level of 100µm is usual. Some meters can actually block the
flow if a larger particle is trapped in the wrong place.
Many meters are not made in high specification materials and therefore corrosion can be a concern. An all
plastic or all 316SS meter is the exception rather than the rule.
As the application flow rate increases the size of the PD meter seems to increase by a square law. It is rare
to find meters over 12-in in size.
 Flow control loop
Control loops are added to a process to control the process. In control
loops,
A valve is used in a control system to control the flow of the fluid inside
the pipe system. So valves are the control element in flow control system.
The flow inside the pipeline is measured using flow measurement devices
such as an orifice, venturi, ultrasonic flow measuring devices. The measured
value is transmitted using the flow transmitter to the controller.
The controller compares the measured value with the set point value. The
set point is the preset value which is the required flow value. The difference
in the value is given to the control device, which is valve here to take a
proper control action.
If the measured value is greater than the set point then the value is
controlled to close and block the flow so that flows set to required flow.
If the measured value is less than the set point, then the valve open
further to maintain the required flow.
Every control loop uses the pneumatic and electric signals.
The flow transmitter sends 4-20mA signal which indicates the flow parameter and acceptable
to the controller. The controller sends the control action through pneumatic signal within 3-
15 psi pressure standard. Valve actuators move according to the pneumatic signal send by the
controller.
 Temperature measurements
Temperature is the most widely measured variable in the process,
power, oil refineries & other industrial plants industries. Temperature is
often a critical factor in industrial processing. If a temperature
measurement is not accurate or reliable for any reason, it can have a
detrimental effect on such things as process efficiency, energy
consumption, and product quality.
 Temperature measurements
Types of Temperature Sensors;
Five types of devices commonly used as a temperature sensors:
1.Bimetal or spring-type thermometers. Widely used despite their slow response and lack
of accuracy as they are inexpensive and easily adjusted.
2.Thermocouples. The most widely used industrial sensor, consisting of two dissimilar
metal wires joined at one end, these produce a voltage proportional to temperature.
3.Resistance-temperature detectors (RTD’s). Typically wound from platinum wire, these
are expensive but give rapid response and good measurement accuracy.
4.Thermistors. These semiconductor-based devices measure temperature over a limited
range and are often used in medical applications.
5.Infrared (IR) radiation detectors. These non-contact sensors measure surface
temperature and fall into one of two types: IR pyrometers and thermal imaging cameras.
Use of both is growing rapidly as many more products come on to the market.
 Bimetal or spring-type thermometers

Bi-metals thermometer have dial displays. The dial is connected to a

spring coil at the center of the probe. The spring coil is made of two
different types of metal that expand in different ways when exposed to
heat. The expansion of the coil with heat pushes the needle on the dial.
Bi-metal thermometers are very inexpensive, and typically take several
minutes to come to temperature. their entire metal coil has to be
immersed in the material being measured to get an accurate reading.
Liquid thermometers and bi-metals are mechanical thermometers that
don't need any electricity to function. Bi-metal thermometers also go
out of calibration very easily and need to be re-calibrated weekly or
even daily using an ice bath. Adjustments can be made using a simple
screw that rewinds the metal coil.
 Temperature measurements
Absent from this list are liquid-glass thermometers. These cannot be calibrated
as their lack of adjustability means it is only possible to note the error. Additionally,
there are concerns over the risk of breakage, especially with traditional mercury
thermometers.
Measurements are typically made using a sensor (usually a thermocouple or an
RTD) and a signal conditioning circuit (either a transmitter or a channel of an input
card to a DCS or PLC) to amplify the sensor’s low level (ohm or mV) signal to a more
powerful 4-20mA current signal.
Combined with a field connection head and thermowell components, the sensor
and the signal conditioner are called a temperature system or assembly. Systems
are available to meet a variety of measurement accuracy and stability
Requirements.
 RTDs – or Resistance Temperature Detectors
RTD is a temperature sensor that contain a resistor that changes
resistance value as its temperature changes. They have been used for a
long time to measure temperature in laboratory and industrial
processes, and have developed for more accuracy, repeatability, and
stability.
Different materials used in the construction of RTDs offer a different
relationship between resistance and temperature. Temperature
sensitive materials used in the construction of RTDs include platinum,
nickel, and copper; platinum being the most commonly used. the most
common is the platinum 100 ohm (pt100) where pt. refer to the
platinum, 100 refer that this sensor has a resistance of 100 ohm at 0
degree centigrade .
Benefits of Using an RTD
The RTD is one of the most accurate temperature sensors. Not only does it
provide good accuracy, it also provides excellent stability and repeatability RTDs are
also relatively immune to electrical noise and therefore well suited for temperature
measurement in industrial environments, especially around motors, generators and
other high voltage equipment.

The Most Common Resistance Materials for RTDs are:

1. Platinum (most popular and accurate)
2. Nickel
3. Copper
4. Tungsten (rare)
Types of RTDs & usage
Types of RTDs
 Thermocouple

A thermocouple (TC) is a device made by two different wires joined at

one end, called junction end or measuring end. The two wires are
called thermoelements or legs of the thermocouple: the two
thermoelements are distinguished as positive and negative ones. The
other end of the thermocouple is called tail end or reference end
(Figure1). The junction end is immersed in the environment whose
temperature T2 has to be measured, which can be for instance the
temperature of a furnace at about 500°C, while the tail end is held at a
different temperature T1, e.g. at ambient temperature.
 Thermocouple junction

Figure1:Schematic drawing of a thermocouple

Because of the temperature difference between junction end and tail end a voltage difference can be measured between the two
thermoelements at the tail end: so the thermocouple is a temperature-voltage transducer.
 Tc & types
They are used widely in higher temperature applications because they
can withstand greater temperatures than resistance temperature
detectors (RTDs), and are less expensive in most cases.
There are many types of thermocouples. They are calcified according
to the type of metal or alloy junction used. The most common
thermocouple used are (J, k, t, e) types as shown in the table below.
Where the constantan is a copper–nickel alloy. We can see that each
type used for a certain range of temperature. There are other types will
be shown later.
Thermocouple
Types of thermocouple
 Thermowell

The temperature sensors (RTD, Thermocouple, thermometers ...etc.).Cannot be

used directly immersed in the process so the thermowells are used to guard
temperature sensors against damage from excessive pressure, material velocity and
corrosion. They also increase the longevity of the sensor, allow sensor replacement
without draining or shut down the system and reduce the probability of
contamination. Thermowells designed for high pressure applications are typically
machined from special materials to ensure solidity. Smaller thermowells for use in
low pressure environments may be constructed from tubing with one end welded
closed.
Thermowells examples
 Infrared thermometer

Is non-contact thermometers using infrared to measure any object temperature.

This device has the ability to measure the temperature from a distance Infrared
technology is not a new phenomenon.it has been utilized successfully in industrial
and research settings for decades. But new innovations have reduced costs,
increased reliability, and resulted in noncontact infrared sensors offering smaller
units of measurement. All of these factors have led infrared technology to become
an area of interest for new kinds of applications and users
 What are the advantages Infrared by noncontact
temperature measurement
1. It is fast (in the mille second range).time is saved, allowing for more
measurements and accumulation of data (determination of temperature field).
2. It facilitates measurement of moving machines, pumps, motors Barings,
conveyor processes.
3. Measurements can be taken of hazardous or physically inaccessible objects
(high-voltage parts, great measurement distance).
4. Measurements of high temperatures (greater than 1300°C) present no
problems. In similar cases, contact thermometers cannot be used, or have a limited
life.
5. There is no interference.no energy is lost from the target. For example, in the
case of a poor heat conductor such as plastic or wood, measurements are
extremely accurate with no distortion of measured values, as compared to
measurements with contact thermometers.
Infrared gun temp. measurement
 Temperature units & conversion used

Celsius scale, denoted in °C

(informally, degrees centigrade), the
Fahrenheit scale (°F), and the Kelvin
scale. The kelvin (K) is the unit of
temperature in the International
System of Units
 temperature transmitters and controllers
A temperature transmitter is an electrical instrument that interfaces a
temperature sensor (e.g. thermocouple, RTD, or thermistor) to a measurement or
control device (e.g. PLC, DCS, PC, loop controller, data logger, display, recorder,
etc.). Typically, temperature transmitters isolate, amplify, filter noise, linearize, and
convert the input signal from the sensor then send (transmit) a standardized output
signal to the control device. Common electrical output signals used in
manufacturing plants are 4-20mA or 0-10V DC ranges. For example, 4mA could
represent 0°C and 20mA means 100°C.
Temperature Transmitter Inputs ;
A thermocouple sensor is a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined at one end. The
junction produces a low level voltage proportional to the difference in temperature
between the open and closed ends.
An RTD or Resistance Temperature Detector is a passive circuit element whose
resistance increases with increasing temperature in a predictable manner.
temperature controller
Is an instrument used to control temperatures, mainly without
extensive operator involvement. A controller in a temperature control
system will accept a temperature sensor such as a thermocouple or
RTD as input and compare the actual temperature to the desired
control temperature, or setpoint. It will then provide an output to a
control element.

A good example would be an application where the controller takes

an input from a temperature sensor and has an output that is
connected to a control element such as a heater or fan. The controller
is usually just one part of a temperature control system, and the
whole system should be analyzed and considered in selecting the
proper controller.
 Level measurements

Level measurements •
It is very important to know level monitoring of a vessel or tank or
any container in the industrial, production fields like water, oil,
gasoline, LPG (liquid petroleum gas), and solid materials like
powder...etc.
To achieve this target there is an instruments designed to measure
the level in each container.
Most common types of level measurement technologies in use now
are briefly described below:
 Electromechanical level measurement
devices

A motor-operated paddle inside

a vessel is rotating until its
sensor becomes covered with
liquid or solid material.
Electromechanical designs are
low-maintenance and cost
effective.
 Capacitive level sensor
• The principle of capacitive level measurement is based on the capacitance change
of a capacitor. The probe and the tank wall form a capacitor whose capacitance is
dependent on the amount of product in the tank: An empty tank has a lower, a
filled tank a higher capacitance.

Inrouph gage
 Magnetic Level Indicators
Magnetic level indicators are low-
maintenance alternatives to sight
glasses and other level indicators. They
provide liquid level indication while
reducing leak points. Combined with
externally mounted transmitters and
switches, magnetic level indicators
provide a good solution for visual
monitoring & control the level to
process requirements.
( Sight glass level
indicator )
 Ultra-sonic level transmitter
Introduction;
Ultrasonic measurement is based on the speed of sound. Sound can be used as a
measurement tool because there is a measurable time lapse between sound
generation and the „hearing” of the sound. This time lapse is then converted into
usable information. Ultrasonic sensing equipment generates a sound above 20 000
Hz
The O/P of the transmitter is 4 to 20 ma going to the control room to drive the
indicator & there is a local screen provided to monitor the level.
Disadvantages of Using Ultrasonic Liquid Level
Sensors
- With some liquid media, however, these ultrasonic waves are absorbed rather
than reflected so it may give wrong readings such like foam , low density liquids
which contains vapour.
- Rough liquids, turbulent liquids, foaming, and other activity can inhibit the
performance of ultrasonic sensors. In applications where liquid excitation is
common, ultrasonic sensors may therefore be a poor choice.
- It may be affected with high pressure, dust, or temperature extremes.
 RADAR RAdio Detection And Ranging
MAGNIT Role
GOOGLE Radar type;
This type works with high-frequency radar pulses which are emitted by an antenna
and reflected from the medium surface due to a change of the dc value (relative
dielectric constant). The Time-of-Flight of the reflected radar pulse is directly
proportional to the distance travelled. If the tank geometry is known, the level can
be calculated from this variable. This type are practically unaffected by the process
atmosphere (vapor, pressure, dust, or temperature extremes)
 Benefits
Non-contact, maintenance-free measurement
Unaffected by medium properties like density and conductivity, in bulk solids also
unaffected by filling noise and dust
Freely adjustable measuring range
For high temperatures up to +450°C/+842°F
 Radar level transmitter
Radar measurement technology is non-contacting and low maintenance.
Because microwaves require no carrier medium, The O/P of the transmitter is
4 to 20 ma going to the control room to drive the indicator & there is a local
screen provided to monitor the level.
 Column Level transmitter

This type is measuring the level directly

when connected to a tank. Normally is
located in the lower part of the tank.
Knowing the specific gravity of the liquid &
the maximum height of the tank the
calibration of the unit is made.
 Differential pressure level measurement

Differential Pressure (DP) Level Measurement uses pressure readings and specific
gravity to output level. DP Level is a common measurement technique that is used
in a wide variety of applications. Solutions. include standard transmitter
connections and integrated transmitters with direct or remote reading with
electronic systems. Additional Wireless options are also used. Direct mount and
remote mount connections are engineered to meet a wide variety of measurement
needs.
Delta p measurement in pressurized vessel
 installation

Direct mount connections offer simple installation for mounting transmitters

directly to the vessel eliminating the need for additional transmitter mounting
provisions.
Remote (indirect) mount connections consist of a seal attached to a transmitter
via capillary tube and are used in tuned or balanced systems, high temperature
installations and remote transmitter mounting applications.
Remote mounting connection

Electronic deferential pressure

All level transmitters has a signal output which is convenient with its control loop
..mostly using a current signal ( 4 to 20 ma) to cover all the range of the level of a
vessel or a tank. So the level transmitter is a part of a loop which consist other
instruments like level controller, control valve, level indicator ,level alarm, control
room indication..etc. which will be seen when illustrating the control loops.
Thank you