Theory of Flight 1

Aviation Technician - AIRC 113
Theory of Flight
08/21/2016 1
Properties of the Atmosphere
2
08/21/2016 The surrounding air of the Earth
Layers of the atmosphere
• There are 4 layers

in the atmosphere
• They are the:
Troposphere
Stratosphere
Mesosphere
Thermosphere
3
08/21/2016
Troposphere
• This is the layer that is

closest to the surface of
the earth, where people can
live un-assisted
• It’s elevation ranges from 0

to 10 km
4
08/21/2016
Stratosphere
• This layer sits on top of the troposphere

• It’s elevation ranges from 10 km to around
25 km
• This layer contains
the ozone layer,
which protects us
from harmful
sunlight
5
08/21/2016
Mesosphere
• This layer is above the stratosphere

• It’s elevation ranges from 25 to 100 km
6
08/21/2016
Thermosphere
• This is the highest layer

of the atmosphere
• It’s height ranges from
100 to 400 km
• This is where most
small meteorites burn
up and is also the part
of the atmosphere that
the northern lights
occur (aurora borealis)
7
08/21/2016
Composition of Air
• There are many different

types of gasses in the
atmosphere
• They include nitrogen,
oxygen, argon, carbon
dioxide and other noble
gasses
• The gas that is most
abundant is nitrogen
8
08/21/2016
Pressure and Atmosphere
• Pressure is the force differential between two

points.
• The constant force that surrounds the earth due

to the weight of the air around it is called
atmospheric pressure.
9
08/21/2016
• Thus, a column of air

one square inch in
section, extending from
the earth's surface to
the extremities of the
atmosphere, weighs
14.7 LB and so exerts
this pressure on one
square inch of the
earth's surface.
10
08/21/2016
• Types of Pressures
– Differential pressure is pressure measured

between two different points.
– Absolute pressure is pressure measured or

referenced against a perfect vacuum.
– Gauge pressure is pressure measured or

referenced against the atmospheric pressure
around the gauge.
11
08/21/2016
• Types of Pressures
– Static pressure is the air pressure around the
aircraft at the altitude it is operating at,
referenced to a perfect vacuum.
• Pressure is measured in many units, depending on
country and application
– PSI, BAR, Pa, In Hg, mm Hg, Torr, In H2O etc
– Static pressure is measured in In Hg in the
imperial system or kPa in the metric system.
12
08/21/2016
Torricelli’s Law
• Torricelli's law describes the parting speed of a jet

of water, based on the distance below the surface
at which the jet starts, assuming no air resistance,
viscosity, or other hindrance to the fluid flow.
• This diagram shows

several such jets,
vertically aligned, leaving
the reservoir horizontally.
13
08/21/2016
Torricelli’s Law
• In this case, the jets have an envelope (a concept

also due to Torricelli) which is a line descending at
45 degrees from the water's surface over the jets.
• Each jet reaches farther than any other jet at the
point where it touches
the envelope, which is
at a distance of twice
the depth of the jet's
source.
14
08/21/2016
Torricelli’s Law
• The depth at which two jets cross is the sum of

their source depths.
• Every jet (even if not leaving horizontally) takes
a parabolic path .
15
08/21/2016
Temperature
• Heat is a form of energy that causes molecules to

“shake” within a material.
• The amount of shake is measured in terms of

temperature.
• So, temperature is a measurement of the kinetic

energy of molecules.
16
08/21/2016
Temperature
17
08/21/2016
Temperature
• Air temperature decreases by 1.98o C for every

1,000 ft increase in altitude
(this is a lapse rate) from
15o C at mean sea-level to
-56.5o C at 36,089 ft.
• Above this altitude to approx.
60,000’ the temperature
is assumed to remain
constant at -56.5o C.
18
08/21/2016
Temperature
• Adiabatic Lapse rate

– When air heats up it rises.
– As it rises it expands due to the air pressure going down
• So the air is doing work, but gains or loses no heat
– Internal energy is lost doing this, so the air temperature
drops
• The process of expanding or contracting without
exchanging heat is called Adiabatic
• Air is a poor conductor of heat, so heat transfer
from surrounding air is negligible.
19
08/21/2016
Temperature
Inversion
• An inversion occurs when there is a deviation from
the normal lapse rate
• This occurs most nights
– the ground cools off at night and so the air in contact
with the ground cools
– The air aloft stays at the same temperature
– So as you climb the temperature goes up for a distance
before the normal lapse rate “takes over”
20
08/21/2016
Air Density
• Density of air is affected by:
– What is in the air

– Temperature
– Pressure
21
08/21/2016
Boyle’s Law
• Boyle’s Law is one of the laws of physics that

concerns the behavior of gasses
• When a gas is under pressure it takes up less

space
– The higher the pressure
the smaller the volume
– The lower the pressure the
larger the volume
22
08/21/2016
Boyle’s Law
• Boyle’s Law tells us about the relationship between

the volume of a gas and its pressure at constant
temperature
• The Law states that pressure is inversely

proportional to volume.
23
08/21/2016
Boyle’s Law
24
08/21/2016
Charles’ Law
• Charles’ Law tells us about the relationship

between the volume of a gas and its temperature
at constant pressure
• Charles’ Law states that volume is proportional to

temperature.
25
08/21/2016
Charles’ Law
26
08/21/2016
Dalton’s Law
• Dalton’s Law tells us about the relationship

between the non-reacting components of a gas
• Also known as Dalton’s law of partial pressures
• The Law states that total pressure of the gas is

equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the
individual gases
27
08/21/2016
Dalton’s Law
• Air is made up of many gases

– 78.1% nitrogen, 20.9% oxygen, .9% argon, the rest
being small amounts of other gases (water vapour,
carbon dioxide etc)
– So, at standard atmospheric conditions (14.7PSI, 15C)
• Nitrogen will have a pressure of 78%*14.7 = 11.5 PSI
• Oxygen will have a pressure of 20.9%*14.7 = 3.1 PSI
28
08/21/2016
Dalton’s Law
• So if you know the total air pressure and the

proportions of its components you can calculate
the partial pressures of each component
• Or if you know the partial pressures you can
calculate the total pressure
29
08/21/2016
Density effects on performance
• As altitude increases air density decreases (the air

molecules are further apart)
• Temperature also effects density
• We combine the effects of height and temperature

to arrive at “Density Altitude”. This makes it easier
to figure out how our aircraft will perform
30
08/21/2016
• So what are the effects on aircraft performance?
31
08/21/2016
• Engine
– Decreased density means less air goes into the

engine
– Every engine intake stroke has a fixed volume
– Less air → less power
– So take-off distances go up
32
08/21/2016
• Airframe
– Decreased density means propeller thrust &
wing efficiency go down as there are fewer air
molecules to interact with.
– True airspeed/ground speed go up with lower
air densities, so more runway is required to
takeoff/land
– Sometimes aircraft weight is limited at higher
density altitudes to prevent pilots from getting
into trouble
33
08/21/2016
Humidity
• Air is seldom completely dry

• Water in the air is referred to
as humidity
• That water can be in the form of vapour or small
droplets in suspension (fog)
• Clouds are made of fog
• Water (H2O) weighs much less than oxygen (O2)
so higher humidity effects the performance the
same as altitude or temperature increasing 34
08/21/2016
Humidity
• Two types of Humidity:

– Absolute; the actual amount of moisture in the
air. Higher temperature air can hold more
moisture
– Relative; the amount of
moisture actually in the
air relative to the
maximum amount it
could carry
35
08/21/2016
Humidity
• Relative humidity (R.H.) has dramatic effects on

performance
– At 75% R.H. the air is holding 75% of the
maximum amount of water it can carry
– But water vapour
weighs 62% of what air
does
– So air density goes
down considerably
36
08/21/2016
Humidity
• Dewpoint is the temperature of the air when it

reaches the state where it cannot carry any more
moisture
• So it is the point when 100% R.H. is reached as

temperature drops
• At this time moisture will begin to condense out of

the air as rain/snow
37
08/21/2016
Humidity
• Water/water vapour do not burn!
– Effective air/fuel ratio goes down
– The mixture effectively gets richer
Piston engines can lose up to 12% of their

power
Turbine engines can lose up to 3%

38
08/21/2016
Standard Day
• The establishment of “A STANDARD DAY” was

necessary to set a reference for comparisons
• An aircraft will perform

differently at different density
altitudes (the location can be
the same, barometric pressure,
temperature & humidity are
constantly changing)
39
08/21/2016
Standard Day
• A Standard Day was defined by ICAO as 14.7

lbf/in2 and is equal to 29.921 in Hg or 1013.25
mbar at 590 F or 150 C at the equator.
• When all aerodynamic

computations are related to
this standard meaningful
comparison of aircraft
performance data are possible.
40
08/21/2016
Bernoulli and his Principal of Airflow
• Within any confined system, total energy remains

constant. If one component of energy increases,
there must be a corresponding decrease in other
components.
• Total pressure within the

confined system is the
summation of static and
dynamic pressure.
41
08/21/2016
Venturi tube
• The volume of air passing any given point per unit
of time is equal throughout the tube.
• This is known as MASS FLOW RATE
Slow velocity of air with As air velocity increases, static
equal static and dynamic pressure decreases, dynamic
pressures pressure increases
42
08/21/2016
Airfoil
• Lets take half of that venturi tube and see what

happens when we move air across the shape
• Lets assume there is no upper physical limit of the

tube
43
08/21/2016
Airfoil
• The flow closest to the airfoil conforms to the
shape of the airfoil while the air farthest from the
airfoil remains horizontal and acts like the upper
surface of the venturi
44
08/21/2016
How is most of the lift produced?

• Air over the bottom travels slightly further
• So there is a small velocity increase and pressure
decrease Low Pressure Area
Static = 1 = 10
Static = 5= 10
Dynamic = 9
Dynamic = 5
Static = 4 = 10
Dynamic = 6
High Pressure Area Static = 3 = 10

Dynamic = 7
08/21/2016
High seeks Low 45
Newton’s Laws of Motion
• Law of Inertia
• Law of Acceleration
• Law of Action and Reaction
46
08/21/2016
#1 Law of Inertia
This law states that a body at rest will remain at

rest, and a body in motion will remain in motion
until acted upon by an outside force.
47
08/21/2016
#1 Law of Inertia – practical examples
• Rotor system prior to start (remains at rest)
• Engine overcomes resistance to movement

(outside force)
• Rotor continues to spin after shutdown (remains in

motion)
• Rotor slows due to air resistance (Drag or outside

force) 48
08/21/2016
#2 Law of Acceleration
The force required to produce a change in the
motion of a body is directly proportional to its
mass and the rate of change in its velocity.
49
08/21/2016
#2 Law of Acceleration
• Acceleration is a change in velocity with respect to

time. It can be either an increase or decrease in
velocity
50
08/21/2016
#3 Law of Action and Reaction

For every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction
• If an interaction occurs between two bodies, equal
forces in opposite directions will be imparted to
each body
51
08/21/2016
#3 Law of Action and Reaction

• Because wings typically fly with “an angle of
attack” the air that gets deflected downward also
generates some lift
52
08/21/2016
Airfoils
An airfoil is the 2D cross-section shape of the wing,

which creates sufficient lift with minimal drag
53
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Typical
streamlines
54
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Angle of Attack (AOA)

Relative
Wind  chor
d lin
e
V
55
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Critical Angle
• The AOA where
airflow separates
and lift decreases
rapidly.
• Also called stall
angle.
• Always occurs at
the same angle for
a given aircraft.
56
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Stall
Video:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WFcW5-1NP60
57
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Problems in the stall

• If the wing stalls over the whole span the aircraft
has no roll control (the ailerons stall first!)
• To address this we design in “Wash Out”
58
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Problems in the stall

• Some wings stall along the entire trailing edge
naturally.
• Stall strips are
sometimes added
to the leading edge
near the wing root
to “trip” the stall
early and improve
stalling behavior.
59
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Center of Pressure
• Lift is acting over the whole surface of an airfoil
• This is difficult to work with, so we “add up” all the
little contributions over the surface of the wing and
come up with single
force vector
representing the
total lift produced.
60
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Laminar flow & Turbulent flow

• Laminar where airflow is very smooth, not
interfering with each other
• Turbulent where airflow is not smooth (“whirlpools”
in flow)
– Can be turbulent
attached or detached
• Detached flow means
the wing is at least
partially stalled.
61
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Laminar flow & Turbulent flow

• Why?
– At the wing surface a “boundary” layer forms
once movement begins
– Closer to the surface air velocity is lower
62
08/21/2016
Airfoils
Airflow separation – how can we control it?

• It depends on what/how it is happening.
• To separate section of the

wing span , we use fences.
• Vortex generators can be

added to “suck away” some
of the boundary layer and
delay separation. 63
08/21/2016
Airfoils
• Boundary layer suction
• Blown flap
64
08/21/2016
Airfoils
• Slots
• Slats
65
08/21/2016
Historical Airfoils
66
08/21/2016
Historical Airfoils
67
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
In normal flight a light airplane derives its forward

motion from the thrust provided by the engine-driven
propeller.
68
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
If the aircraft is maintaining a constant height,

direction and speed then the thrust force will balance
the air's resistance (drag) to the aircraft's motion
through it.
69
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
The forward motion creates an airflow over the wings

and the dynamic pressure changes within this airflow
create an upward acting force or lift.
70
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
This will balance the force due to gravity – weight –

acting downward.
71
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
Thus in normal un-accelerated flight the four basic

forces acting on the aircraft are in equilibrium.
72
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
The pilot is able to change the direction and

magnitude of these forces and thereby control the
speed, flight path and performance of the airplane.
73
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
An aircraft in flight is
'airborne' and its velocity
is relative to the
surrounding air, not the
Earth's surface
74
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
When the aircraft

encounters a sudden
change in the ambient air
velocity — a transient gust —
inertia comes into play and
momentarily maintains the
aircraft velocity relative to
the Earth or – more
correctly – relative to space.
75
08/21/2016
The Bottom Line
This momentarily changes

airspeed and imparts other
forces to the aircraft. (The
fact that inertia over-rides
the physics of aerodynamics
is sometimes a cause of
confusion).
76
08/21/2016
Direction of forces
The direction of the forces

are relative to the flight
path.
77
08/21/2016
Direction of forces
Although we said that lift

acts vertically upward with
thrust and drag acting
horizontally, this is only
true when an aircraft is in
straight and level flight.
78
08/21/2016
Direction of forces
In fact, lift acts

perpendicular to both the
flight path and the lateral
axis of the aircraft, drag
acts parallel to the flight
path and thrust usually
acts parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft. 79
08/21/2016
The Lift Equation
Aerodynamicists have found it convenient to resolve

that resultant force into just two components:
• The part acting backward along the flight path is
drag
• The part acting perpendicular to the flight path is
lift.
80
08/21/2016
The Lift Equation
Is there a way to calculate the lift and drag?
81
08/21/2016
The Lift Equation
The amount of lift, and drag, generated by the wings

is chiefly dependent on:
• the angle at which the wings meet the airflow or flight path,
• the shape of the wings particularly in cross section – the
airfoil,
• the density (i.e. mass per unit volume) of the air,
• the speed of the free stream airflow i.e. flight airspeed,
• and the wing plan-form surface area.
Lift  CL 1
2
 2
v A
82
08/21/2016
The Lift Equation
Lift  CL 1
2
 2
v A
• The values in the expression are:
•  (the Greek letter rho) is the density of the air, in
kg/m³
• v² is the flight speed in meters per second
• A is the wing area in square meters
• CL is a dimensionless quantity – the lift coefficient.
Mostly depends on the ANGLE of Attack and the
SHAPE of the wing. 83
08/21/2016
The Lift Equation
Angle of Attack (AOA) and the

lift coefficient
• The diagram shows a typical
CL vs. angle of attack curve
for a light airplane not
equipped with flaps or
high-lift devices.
• From it you can read the
CL value for each “AOA”,
e.g. at 10°the ratio for
conversion of dynamic
pressure to lift is 0.9
84
08/21/2016
The Lift Equation
What effect does decreasing speed have?

• As speed is decreased in straight and level flight
the amount of lift produced must remain constant.
• The only way to do that is to increase the lift
coefficient
• “Typically” we do not change the shape or area of
the wing, so the angle of attack must be increased
to do increase the CL
Lift  CL 1 v 2 A
2
85
08/21/2016
The Lift Equation
How?
• The pilot adjusts control pressures to apply an
aerodynamic force to the aircraft's tailplane ( or
some other control surface)
• This as the effect of rotating the aircraft a degree
or so about its lateral axis, pitching the aircraft
nose up and increasing the AOA.
86
08/21/2016
The Drag Equation
The drag equation is similar to the lift equation with

the exception that we have a DRAG COEFFICIENT
rather than a LIFT COEFFICIENT.
Similar to CL depending on “AOA”, CD depends on
the SQUARE of the “AOA”.
87
08/21/2016
The Drag Equation
Drag  CD 1
2
 2
v A
• The values in the expression are:
•  (the Greek letter rho) is the density of the air, in
kg/m³
• v² is the flight speed in meters per second
• A is the wing area in square meters
• CD is a dimensionless quantity – the drag
coefficient. Mostly depends on the ANGLE of
attack and the SHAPE of the wing. 88
08/21/2016
The Drag Equation
Without the needed thrust, weight has more

influence than lift and pulls the airplane toward the
ground. Helping the force of weight is drag.
Drag is present at all times and can be defined as
the force which opposes thrust, or, better yet, it
is the force which opposes all motion through
the atmosphere and is parallel to the direction of
the relative wind
89
08/21/2016
The Drag Equation
INDUCED DRAG: Newtonian & Pressure Induced

• Induced drag is the unavoidable by-product of lift
and increases as the angle of attack increases
• Newtonian or DYNAMIC
DRAG is caused by the
INERTIA of AIR.
• Pressure Induced Drag
occurs when the “AOA”
is too large and the air
flow becomes turbulent.
90
08/21/2016
The Drag Equation
Parasite Drag
• Parasite drag is all drag created that is not
involved in creating lift.
• Skin-friction drag is caused by the friction between
outer surfaces of the aircraft and the air through
which it moves. It will be
found on all surfaces of
the aircraft: wing, tail,
engine, landing gear,
and fuselage .
91
08/21/2016
The Drag Equation
Parasite Drag
• Form drag is due to the shape of the object
moving through the air
92
08/21/2016
The Drag Equation
Interference Drag
• Interference drag is generated by the mixing of
airflow streamlines between airframe components
93
08/21/2016
Putting it all together
Lift and Drag

The LIFT/DRAG ratio can be found by taking the lift
coefficient and dividing by the drag coefficient.
CL
L / D ratio 
CD
The L/D ratio is a measure of EFFICIENCY!!!

94
08/21/2016
L/D Ratio
What good is all this for aircraft design?
The lower the glide angle, and the greater the

distance that a plane can travel across the ground for
a given change in height.
95
08/21/2016
L/D Ratio
Because lift and drag are both aerodynamic forces,

we can think of the L/D ratio as an aerodynamic
efficiency factor for the aircraft.
Designers of gliders and designers of cruising aircraft
want a high L/D ratio to maximize the distance which
an aircraft can fly.
It is not enough to just design an aircraft to produce
enough lift to overcome weight.
The designer must also keep
the L/D ratio high to maximize
the range of the aircraft.
96
08/21/2016
Aspect Ratio
• Ratio between span & chord

– At a given speed higher aspect ratios have lower
drag and stalling speed
Issues:
– Higher aspect ratios
have structural
challenges, higher
parasitic drag, and
poor maneuverability.
– Large span aircraft
need special
facilities.
97
08/21/2016
Wing Tip Vortices
At the end of the wing we get air flow around the tip
from bottom to the top – this creates vortices.
They are strongest when the aircraft is flying slowly
98
08/21/2016
Wing Tip Vortices
Winglets are often used to reduce tip vortices

• They increase the aspect ratio of the wing without
increasing span.
• The surface acts like a “fence” preventing air
“leakage”
• The cant angle causes the winglet to produce
“thrust”
99
08/21/2016
Wing Tip Vortices
Other methods of reducing wing tip vortices include

tip tanks, “sharklets”& drooped (Hoerner) wing tips.
100
08/21/2016
Wing Planform & Taper
Planform is the shape of the wing when viewed from

above or below.
101
08/21/2016
• Straight wings are most structurally efficient, and

have good stall behavior.
• Elliptical wings have the highest theoretical
efficiency, but are hard to make, have poor stall
characteristics.
• Tapered wings are structurally & aerodynamically
more efficient than a straight wing. Allows us to
approximate the performance of an elliptical wing
without the complexity.
• Swept wings have lower drag at high speeds, but
can handle badly near/in stalled flight, also require
high stiffness.
08/21/2016
102
• Swing wings combine the advantages of straight

tapered & swept back wings
• Delta wing offers the advantages of a swept wing

with good structural efficiency & high strength
103
08/21/2016
Taper – thickness
• Thicker at the root is:
• Stronger, lighter & more stiff
• allows for more fuel volume
• Improves CLmax
• increases low speed drag slightly
• at high speeds causes considerable transonic
drag, limiting speed
104
08/21/2016
Stalling behavior
r
105
08/21/2016
Stalling behavior
Stalls in a twin with one

engine inoperative lead
to roll or spin entry
– The propeller
slip stream delays
the stall
106
08/21/2016
Aircraft Axes
107
08/21/2016
Turning Flight
All aircraft turning flight is achieved by use of

differential lift.
For example:
– More lift on one wing than

the other results in a roll
around the longitudinal axis.
108
08/21/2016
Turning Flight
– This tilts the lift sideways

– The horizontal component
of that lift is what turns the
aircraft.
– Because the vertical
component is reduced
more total lift must be
created, so we need to
increase the angle of
attack, the pilot “pulls
back” a little in turns.
109
08/21/2016
Turning Flight
– However, more lift means

more induced drag on that
wing – resulting in adverse
yaw.
– Adverse yaw can be corrected
by rudder application
– Or Frise ailerons are used,
they create parasitic drag on
the up-going aileron to
compensate.
110
08/21/2016
Turning Flight
Greater angles of require greater lift so that:

– The vertical component of lift equals weight (to
maintain altitude)
– The horizontal component of lift equals centrifugal
force (for constant radius, coordinated turns)
111
08/21/2016
Turning Flight
Load factor (multiples of aircraft weight that the

wings support) increases with bank angle.
Stall speed increases
accordingly.
limit load
factor:
acrobatic 6G
Normal 3.8G
112
08/21/2016
Turning Flight
As bank angle increases, load factor increases

But as airspeed increases, rate of turn decreases
– In order to make a 3 degree per second turn at
500kts the aircraft would have to bank more than
50 degrees
– This gives an uncomfortable & possibly unsafe
load factor
This is why jet powered aircraft use a standard rate
turn is 1.5 degrees per second.
113
08/21/2016
Flight
Controls
11/20/2015 114
Flight Controls - Primary
• Motion About The Axis
Roll:( Lateral Control) (Lateral

Stability)
Motion about the “Longitudinal
Axis”
Controlled by "ailerons"
Pitch: (Longitudinal Control)
(longitudinal stability)
motion about the " Lateral Axis "
controlled by "Elevator "
Yaw: (Directional Control)
(Directional Stability).
Motion about the " Vertical Axis"
Controlled by "Rudder"
Stability Stabilizing Axis Movement Control

Dynamic Factor
Longitudinal Horizontal Lateral Pitch Elevator
Stab
Directional Vertical Stab Vertical Yaw Rudder
Lateral Dihedral Angle Longitudinal Roll Aileron

• Ailerons are hinged control surfaces
attached to the trailing edge of the wing
of a fixed-wing aircraft. The ailerons are
used to control the aircraft in roll. The
two ailerons are typically interconnected
so that one goes down when the other
goes up: the downgoing aileron
increases the lift on its wing while the
upgoing aileron reduces the lift on the
other wing, producing a rolling moment
about the aircraft's longitudinal axis.
The word aileron is French for "little
wing."
Aileron drag:
To bank the aircraft, the
aileron on one wing goes
up, while the other goes
down, the down going
aileron gives greater lift
and more drag. Up going
aileron gives less lift and
less drag. Because of
this difference in drag an
aircraft has a tendency to
yaw in the opposite
direction of the bank.
• Down going aileron is streamlined

into the wing, causing reduced
drag.Up going aileron his nose is
projected into the airflow below the
wing increasing drag and again
canceling the extra drag produced by
the down going aileron. Frise
Ailerons Cessna 100 series
• Up going aileron goes up a larger

amount than the down going aileron.
This gives up going aileron more
drag, which cancels the extra drag
produced by the down going aileron.
King Air 90 Differential Ailerons:
• Elevators are control surfaces,
usually at the rear of an aircraft,
which control the aircraft's
orientation by changing the pitch of
the aircraft, and so also the angle
of attack of the wing. An increased
wing angle of attack will cause a
greater lift to be produced by the
profile of the wing, and a slowing
of the aircraft. A decreased angle
of attack will produce an increase
in speed (a dive). The elevators
may be the only pitch control
surface present (and are then
called a stabilator), or may be
hinged to a fixed or adjustable
surface called a stabilizer.
• The rudder is usually

attached to the fin
(or vertical stabilizer)
which allows the
pilot to control yaw
in the vertical axis,
i.e. change the
horizontal direction
in which the nose is
pointing. The
rudder's direction is
manipulated with the
movement of foot
pedals by the pilot.
Flight Controls
Pitch Control
• Elevators
• Sole function is to change the angle of attack of the

airplane, which alters its speed, lift and drag.
Pitch Control
Pitch Control
• Stabilator
• All-movable tail
• Anti-servo tab
• Ruddervators
• Provides both longitudinal and directional stabilization

and control.
Lateral Or Roll Control
• Ailerons
• Rolling action produced is the primary method of lateral

control on most aircraft.
Lateral Or Roll Control
Directional Control
• Adverse aileron yaw
• The aileron that moves downward creates lift and

induced drag.
• Induced drag pulls the nose of the airplane around in the

direction opposite the way the airplane should turn.
Directional Control
• Rudder
• Rotates the airplane about its vertical axis (Yawing)
• Also provides a form of roll control because the

application of rudder causes yaw which will induce a
roll.
Directional Control
Compound flight controls
Elevons – Elevators and ailerons combined
131
08/21/2016
Flaperons - combine flap and aileron functions
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sg0SndLjtfE
132
08/21/2016
Stabilator - combines horizontal stabilizer and

elevator function, also called an all-flying tail
133
08/21/2016
Ruddervators – combine rudder and elevator

functions
134
08/21/2016
Secondary flight controls - Trim devices
• Aircraft are not always “perfectly balanced” – this

can be caused by uneven fuel burn,
passengers/cargo moving.
• This requires small movements of the control
system to return the aircraft to “balance”.
• Small, simple aircraft use fixed ground adjustable
“tabs” to do this.
135
08/21/2016
Secondary flight controls - Trim tab
• As aircraft go faster
fixed tabs can no longer
do the job – the amount
of deflection changes
with airspeed.
• Adjustable tabs are

required.
136
08/21/2016
Secondary flight controls – balance tab
• At the same time control forces are increasing, so

the pilot finds it harder to move the controls.
• Balance tabs – are coupled to the primary control
surface by a rod, and move in the opposite
direction.
• In this way the tab generates a force that reduces
the one applied by the pilot to move the control.
137
08/21/2016
Secondary flight controls – servo tabs
• Servo tabs are similar in operation & appearance

to “regular” trim tabs – BUT
• Only the servo tab moves in response to the pilot’s
controls, airflow forces on the servo tab move the
primary control surface
138
08/21/2016
Secondary flight controls – anti-servo tabs
• Anti-servo tabs are similar in operation &

appearance to servo tabs – BUT
• They move in the same direction as the primary
control and increase the control forces
139
08/21/2016
Secondary flight controls – spring tabs
• Spring tabs are a form of servo tab, but with a

spring added.
• This spring holds the tab in line with the control at
low speeds, but “gives” under aerodynamic loads
at high speeds and provides “servo” function
140
08/21/2016
Auxiliary Lift devices
We want to land & take off at the lowest possible

speeds, so most aircraft have ways of increasing the
lift produced by the wing.
To do this the camber of the wing is normally

increased with flaps to increase the lift and drag for a
given angle of attack
Flaps are normally moved by an electric

motor/jackscrew or hydraulically.
141
08/21/2016
142
08/21/2016
• Plain flaps increase the camber of the wing,

increasing lift approx. 50%.
143
08/21/2016
• Split flaps increase the camber of the wing,

increasing lift approx. 60%, also increase drag
more than plain flaps
144
08/21/2016
• Slotted flaps increase the camber of the wing,

increasing lift approx. 65%, the slot injects high
speed air onto the upper surface and delays
airflow separation
145
08/21/2016
• Fowler flaps increase the area of the wing,

increasing lift approx. 90%
146
08/21/2016
• Double slotted Fowler flaps increase the area of

the wing, increasing lift approx. 100%
147
08/21/2016
• Trailing edge flaps sometimes are not enough so

leading edge devices are also used
• Slotted wing – has fixed slots in the wing
connecting the lower surface to the upper surface
increases lift 40%
148
08/21/2016
• Slatted wing – a smaller

airfoil shaped portion
forward of the leading edge,
can be fixed or moving,
increases lift 50-60%.
149
08/21/2016
• Krueger flapped wing – flap, hinged at the leading

edge, hinged at the
leading edge.
150
08/21/2016
Spoilers
• Sometimes we have too
much lift/not enough
drag.
• Flight spoilers are used
to decrease the lift and
increase the drag of an
aircraft, allowing it to
descend faster without
increasing airspeed.
• Also can be used to improve roll control when
deployed differentially.
151
08/21/2016
Spoilers
• Ground spoilers are
used to decrease the
lift and increase the
drag of an aircraft once
it lands
– preventing it
from taking off again
in wind gusts
– reducing
brake loads
152
08/21/2016
153
08/21/2016
Control surface balance
Control surfaces are typically static balanced, they

have a weight added forward of the hinge so that
they will sit “level” naturally.
154
08/21/2016
If the controls “want” to deflect when disturbed by a

gust FLUTTER can occur.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=egDWh7jnNic
155
08/21/2016
Controls get harder to move as airspeed increases,

so dynamic balances are added.
In smaller aircraft this is often done aerodynamically
with a horn.
Larger aircraft typically use
balance tabs.
156
08/21/2016
Stability
Stability is the tendency of an aircraft to maintain

straight & level flight without pilot input when it is
disturbed by the air around it.
157
08/21/2016
Stability
Static stability is the starting tendency of an aircraft

when disturbed.
• Positive static stability is when the tendency is to
go back to its starting attitude.
• Negative static stability is when the tendency is to
go further from the starting attitude.
• Neutral static stability is
when the tendency is to
stay at the new attitude.
158
08/21/2016
Stability
Dynamic stability is how an aircraft responds over

time to a disturbance.
Positive dynamic stability is when the oscillations
dampen out and stop over time.
159
08/21/2016
Stability
Negative dynamic stability is when the oscillations

get worse over time – avoid at all costs!
160
08/21/2016
Stability
Neutral dynamic stability is when the oscillations

stay the same over time.
161
08/21/2016
Stability
162
08/21/2016
Stability – how do we get it?
Logitudinal (pitch) stability

• The horizontal stabilizer generates lift in a
downward direction (it has a negative angle of
incidence).
• When the aircraft is pitched up by a disturbance
the AOA of the stabilizer
is reduced, lift is reduced
so the downforce on
the tail is reduced.
• This allows the aircraft
to pitch nose down to
the starting attitude.
163
08/21/2016
Logitudinal (pitch) stability

• At the same time, the CG is forward of the CL
• So as wing AOA goes up lift goes up and tries to
return the aircraft to the starting attitude.
164
08/21/2016
Lateral (roll) stability

• Most aircraft have dihedral
(the wings are angled up).
• When the aircraft is banked
it wants to “slide” or sideslip
towards the low wing.
• The air meets the low wing
at a higher angle of attack,
so the lower wing produces more lift, and the
aircraft rights itself.
165
08/21/2016
Lateral (roll) stability
• Keel Effect - In a high

wing aircraft most of
the weight is below
the wing, and acts like
a pendulum.
166
08/21/2016
Directional (yaw) stability
• Vertical stabilizer!
• Keel Effect
167
08/21/2016
• Sweepback
effect
168
08/21/2016
Limits of Stability
Aircraft can be designed so

that they are too stable.
• The more stable the
aircraft is the more
control forces that have
to be generated.
• This requires larger
controls, and limits how
maneuverable the aircraft is.
• So the aircraft has a balance between stability
and control.
169
08/21/2016
Another look at Stalls
Conditions leading to a stall

• Angle of Attack
• Increased weight
• Low speed flight
• High speed flight
• Rough surfaces
170
08/21/2016
Stall warning systems

• Buffeting
• Stick shakers
171
08/21/2016
Stall warning systems

• Audible warning
– Electric
– Pneumatic
172
08/21/2016
The Spin
A spin is a special case of

a stall where 1 wing is “more
stalled” than the other.
The aircraft will yaw/roll quite

quickly as the nose pitches down.
Attitude can change quick rapidly.
173
08/21/2016
The Spin
Height is lost very quickly.
Recovery may not be possible depending in

aircraft loading/conditions.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=er3bgOTsILw
174
08/21/2016
Alternate Arrangements
Canards
• Have a small wing forward
of the main wing
• Wright flyer was a canard
• Can reduce wing loading
and improve high AOA
handling/performance
• Very complicated/ hard to
analyze
175
08/21/2016
Wing sweep
• Delays shock wave formation &
drag rise at high speeds.
• Does not matter if it is forward or
backwards
• Aft sweep has poor tip stall issues
• Forward sweep has no tip stall
issues
176
08/21/2016
Wing sweep
• Large forward sweep for high
aircraft almost impossible
• Stall causes pitch up
• Very unstable
• Has dangerous flex effects if wing is not
stiff enough
• Computer control only possible
177
08/21/2016
“T” Tails
Advantages:
• Tailplane is well out of disturbed
airflow, better pitch control on non-
propeller powered aircraft.
• Acts like a “winglet” for the vertical tail increasing
it’s effectiveness.
• Gets the tail away from the heat of the engines on
some aircraft
178
08/21/2016
“T” Tails
Disadvantages:
• On propeller powered aircraft
pitch control is worse since
propeller slipstream is no longer
hitting elevators
• Structurally heavier, vertical stabilizer must be
stronger
• Can loose pitch control at very high angles of
attack when the tail gets into wing wake.
179
08/21/2016
Turning Tendencies
Torque Reaction
• Newton! – Airplane
turns propeller,
propeller turns
airplane.
• Causes a left-banking
tendency
180
08/21/2016
Turning Tendencies
• Corkscrew effect
– Propwash spirals
around the fuselage
– The vertical
stabilizer is on top
of the aircraft, not the bottom.
– This creates a left-yawing tendency.
– The vertical stabilizer is often mounted on an
angle to the fuselage to address this.
181
08/21/2016
Turning Tendencies
“P-factor”
•Downward moving
blade takes a bigger
“bite” of air than upward
moving blade.
•Causes a left-yawing
tendency at high angles of attack.
182
08/21/2016
Turning Tendencies
Gyroscopic precession
•90 degrees ahead in
the direction of rotation
•Occurs during pitching
(e.g. rotation about the
lateral axis).
•Right-yaw tendency when the nose is rising
•Left-yaw tendency when the nose is falling
183
08/21/2016
Turning Tendencies
Gyroscopic precession
•A left-turning tendency
during takeoff in
taildragger aircraft only.
184
08/21/2016
Primary Flight Controls
185
08/21/2016
More on load factors
We looked at loads on the aircraft earlier in turns –

looking primarily on the wings.
What about on the fuselage?
– The “G” forces discussed
earlier apply.
– Pressurization is trying to
“blow up” the fuselage like a balloon – at the
same time!
– Landing forces can be much higher than flight
loads
186
08/21/2016
– Pressurization is trying to “blow up” the fuselage

like a balloon – at the same time!
187
08/21/2016
Wing loading
• Ratio of:
Aircraft gross weight
Total wing area
A good indicator of
how fast the aircraft
will be:
High loadings have fast takeoff/approach speeds
Low loadings have slow takeoff/approach speeds
188
08/21/2016
Symmetry
For balanced handling the aircraft typically needs to

be symmetrical.
Primarily around longitudinal axis
We want the aircraft to

behave the same way
when turning left
& right.
189
08/21/2016
Symmetry
Non-symmetrical designs are possible, but are

difficult design challenges
190
08/21/2016
Symmetry
Checking airframe symmetry

Aircraft are checked pretty
carefully at the factory.
Not often necessary.
May be required after a
heavy landing
Normally we measure using
a measuring tape on small
aircraft, other tools like water
level, surveyor's transit, laser
systems can be used.
191
08/21/2016
Symmetry
Where we really watch for symmetry is on control

surface rigging!
Always follow the

maintenance manual.
Typically both ailerons/elevators on an aircraft have

the same travels (e.g. 20◦ up and 14◦ down).
Rudder travel left and right is also usually the same

for single engine aircraft, multi-engine aircraft are
often different.
192
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
193
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
As WWII progressed, aircraft flew faster and faster.

By mid-war, P51s, Spitfires, and other types were
reaching speeds close to that of sound, especially in
dives.
Pilots began to report
control difficulties and
unexpected problems
which experts determined
were due to flying too
close to the speed of
sound.
194
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
In 1940, NACA commissioned the Bell Aircraft to

build a special research aircraft for the purpose of
exploring the speed range near and beyond the
speed of sound.
It was considered better to do the research using an
actual aircraft because the USA had no wind tunnels
capable of operating at
supersonic speed.
Of course, the Germans did.
195
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
By the time the war was over, the German research

data had been captured and several of the questions
the X1 was intended to answer were already known.
Nevertheless, the X1 became the first aircraft to
exceed the speed
of sound in October
1947 when Chuck
Yeager flew it to
Mach 1.1 .
196
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
If we look at air very closely we find that the

molecules are very far apart.
When we compress those molecules the pressure
goes up according to Mr. Boyle as the volume
goes down.
The spaces between the molecules get smaller.
Air is compressible
197
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
If we look at water very closely we find that the

molecules are very close together.
When we compress those molecules the pressure

goes up, but the volume does not change
because there is no space between the water
molecules to allow them to get closer together.
Water is not compressible.
198
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
At subsonic speed (less than Mach 1) air acts as if

it’s an incompressible fluid.
– Can change it’s velocity and pressure but not

density.
– As long as it can still move, the space between

molecules will effectively not change → density
remains constant.
199
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
At subsonic speed (less than Mach 1) air follows

Bernoulli
200
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
At supersonic speed (more than Mach 1) air can be

compressed and it’s density increased:
The space between the molecules can be and is

reduced.
Bernoulli’s principle is different for supersonic flows
201
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
At supersonic speed the effects are the opposite
202
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Importance of the speed of sound:

Sound is a pressure disturbance radiating in all
directions from the source.
It behaves similar to waves
in water, but the motion is
not up/down but compression
& expansion of the molecules.
It travels at 661.7 knots (kts)
(1116.9fps, 761.5mph) under
Standard Conditions
203
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Importance of the speed of sound:

Speed is directly proportional to temperature
(goes down as temp. goes down).
Can be calculated:
(Cs = local speed of sound)
Cs in kts = 29.04  oR
Cs in fps = 49.022  oR
Cs in mph = 33.42  oR
204
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Importance of the speed of

sound:
At 36,089’ the temperature
stabilizes and the speed of
sound also stabilizes at
573.8kts.
Above 80,000’ the temp starts
to rise and so does the speed
of sound.
205
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
In subsonic flight sound wave radiate from all points

of the airframe.
They can go in all directions as they are faster than
the aircraft.
206
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
In supersonic flight the aircraft is faster, so sound

waves “pile up” at the nose of the airfoil.
This creates Shock Wave(s)
which are changes in the
pressure and velocity of
airflow.
The shockwave concentrates
the sound and increases it’s
intensity.
207
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Mach # = ratio of True Airspeed of the aircraft to the

speed of sound at that temperature
208
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
The shock wave where the air goes transonic can be

seen if you know where to look.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K08Gc0tKWoA
They form when the aircraft or parts of it exceed

Mach 1
Sound wave are slower than the aircraft
Air “piles” up in Compression Wave, there are
large changes in pressure, velocity & density of
the airflow.
209
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
210
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
There are 3 kinds of shock waves:
Oblique
Normal
Expansion
211
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Oblique shock waves:

Form on sharp edges like leading and trailing
edges.
Points downstream
in airflow.
Angle gets less as
speed goes up,
“flattens out”.
212
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Normal shock waves:

Form in front of or on blunt objects, or ones with
large angles
213
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Normal shock waves:

When in front:
molecules pile up
and create a wave
detached and in
front of the object
– like a bow wave
on a boat.
214
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Normal shock waves:

When on:
they attach to
curved areas
where airflow is just above Mach 1.
In the transonic range form on upper airfoil first
around .75 Mach, and on lower surface around
.85 Mach
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HekbC6Pl4_Y
215
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Expansion shock waves:

Form where the surface
turns away from the
airflow direction (middle
of the airfoil).
Velocity increases.
Pressure and density decrease.
Temperature is constant – little or no total energy
change (this is not a compression wave).
216
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
Below .75 Mach all flow

is subsonic.
In Transonic speed range

at some airspeed (the
critical Mach number or
MCR) some airflow will
reach or exceed Mach 1.
217
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
In Transonic speed range:
A normal shock wave
forms on upper surface
where the max airfoil
thickness is (greatest
velocity).
Causes a large increase in drag.
218
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
Pressure rise through
shock wave reduces
strength of low pressure
area on wing
Normally low pressure “sucks” air against airfoil
for smooth flow.
219
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
Loss of low pressure
means the air is not
sucked down smoothly
and Shock Induced Separation occurs on upper
surface.
So we have a loss of lift and reduced control
effectiveness from turbulence.
220
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
As speeds get closer to
Mach 1:
Normal wave forms on
lower surface& upper wave moves further back
towards the trailing edge
Shock induced separation occurs on bottom too.
221
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
As the shock wave moves
aft the center of lift moves
aft.
This causes the aircraft to
want to pitch “nose down”.
Transonic and faster aircraft incorporate a “Mach
Trim” that will counter this pitching action by
changing the aircraft stabilizer angle to compensate
or by changing the balance of the aircraft.
222
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
At Mach 1:
The top and bottom waves
have moved to the trailing
edge and form oblique waves there.
The entire surfaces have smooth supersonic flow.
The leading edge has a normal wave forming in
front of it - the Bow Wave, like on a boat
223
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
At Mach 1:
The area behind the bow
wave is relatively slow and
is called the Stagnation Area.
The large energy loss through the normal wave
creates significant drag.
224
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
At Mach 1:
The area behind the bow
wave is relatively slow and
is called the Stagnation Area.
The large energy loss through the normal wave
creates significant drag.
225
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
Above Mach 1:
Stagnation area gets
smaller but energy loss
increases.
There is greater change in velocity and pressure
through the normal wave
Greater drag occurs (proportional to speed)
226
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils
Check out for more information:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bELu-if5ckU
227
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils:
To increase critical Mach number (delay shock
induced separation) vortex generators or swept
wings can be used.
228
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Subsonic airfoils:
Horizontal stabs suffer these same problems, and
loose control effectiveness.
It can be kept effective by
making it’s angle of
incidence adjustable.
The F86 was the first A/C
to use this to allow
supersonic speeds while
maintaining control
229
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Supersonic airfoils:
To eliminate Shock Induced Separation in transonic
range you need airfoils with max. thickness at 50% of
chord.
230
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Supersonic airfoils:
Thin airfoils needed – no normal shock wave forms.
Sharp edges form obliques with tiny bow wave and
expansion wave in the middle.
231
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Supersonic aircraft configurations:

Wing planform should have low aspect ratio and
tapered for good strength to weight.
Sweptback for transonic and low supersonic flight.
Straight for high supersonic (Mach 2+).
Delta wings have many advantages of other wing
types, but have very high drag at low speeds.
232
08/21/2016
High Speed flight

Airfoil:
Low Thickness ratio
Gradual change in thickness (airfoil shape)
Max thickness at 50% of chord
Sharp leading and trailing edges
233
08/21/2016
High Speed flight

Fuselage & Nacelles
Long
Slender
Fuselage “Wasp Waisted”
Decreases overall form and
interference drags from
interaction of shockwaves on
various structures
234
08/21/2016
High Speed flight

Tail surfaces
Planform & airfoils like wings
Are generally all moveable surfaces
235
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Aerodynamic heating:
As speeds increase above Mach 1 the stagnation
area sees great temperature rises.
The faster you go the
hotter it gets.
Effects are smaller at
higher altitudes
236
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
Aerodynamic heating:
Increased temps means decreased metal
strengths.
Near hypersonic
speeds temps are
so high that normal
materials melt.
Research is focused
on ceramics and
composite materials.
237
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
High speed flight & Aerodynamic heating:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-1250fZuhUg
238
08/21/2016
High Speed flight
The Future?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6bS4drItm1U
239
08/21/2016
References
•De Remer D (1992) Aircraft Systems for Pilots Casper: IAP

•FAA (1997) Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge AC61-23C Newcastle: ASA
•Lowery J (2001) Professional Pilot Ames: Iowa State Univ. Press
•Schiff B (1985) The Proficient Pilot vol. 1 New York: Macmillan
•U.S. Navy (1965) Aerodynamics for Naval Aviators Newcastle: ASA
•Benson, T Stability & Control, https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/K-
12/airplane/Talks/FlightControl.ppt
• Cutler, Colin (2015) The 3 types of static and dynamic stability,
http://www.boldmethod.com/learn-to-fly/aerodynamics/3-types-of-static-and-dynamic-stability-
in-aircraft/
•Handling of fuselage, https://www.solving.com/case-studies/18t-handling-of-fuselage
•Wing loading, http://forum.milavia.net/military-aircraft/wing-loading/
•Rutan Boomarang, http://fly.blakecrosby.com/2008/05/single-engine-multiengine-nonh.html
•Symmetry – Cessna 340, http://www.slideshare.net/lccmechanics/assy-rigging
•Spin image, http://flyacro.us/images/spin%20afh.jpg
•High Speed flight section from Harry L. Whitehead, High speed aerodynamics
240
08/21/2016
References
241
08/21/2016

Theory of Flight 1

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Theory of Flight 1

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Aviation Technician - AIRC 113

Properties of the Atmosphere

Layers of the atmosphere

• There are 4 layers

• This is the layer that is

• It’s elevation ranges from 0

• This layer sits on top of the troposphere

• This layer is above the stratosphere

• This is the highest layer

• There are many different

Pressure and Atmosphere

• Pressure is the force differential between two

• The constant force that surrounds the earth due

Pressure and Atmosphere

• Thus, a column of air

Pressure and Atmosphere

– Differential pressure is pressure measured

– Absolute pressure is pressure measured or

– Gauge pressure is pressure measured or

Pressure and Atmosphere

• Torricelli's law describes the parting speed of a jet

• This diagram shows

• In this case, the jets have an envelope (a concept

• The depth at which two jets cross is the sum of

• Heat is a form of energy that causes molecules to

• The amount of shake is measured in terms of

• So, temperature is a measurement of the kinetic

• Air temperature decreases by 1.98o C for every

• Adiabatic Lapse rate

• Density of air is affected by:

– What is in the air

• Boyle’s Law is one of the laws of physics that

• When a gas is under pressure it takes up less

• Boyle’s Law tells us about the relationship between

• The Law states that pressure is inversely

• Charles’ Law tells us about the relationship

• Charles’ Law states that volume is proportional to

• Dalton’s Law tells us about the relationship

• Also known as Dalton’s law of partial pressures

• The Law states that total pressure of the gas is

• Air is made up of many gases

• So if you know the total air pressure and the

Density effects on performance

• As altitude increases air density decreases (the air

• Temperature also effects density

• We combine the effects of height and temperature

Density effects on performance

• So what are the effects on aircraft performance?

Density effects on performance

– Decreased density means less air goes into the

– Every engine intake stroke has a fixed volume

– Less air → less power

Density effects on performance

• Air is seldom completely dry

• Two types of Humidity:

• Relative humidity (R.H.) has dramatic effects on

• Dewpoint is the temperature of the air when it

• So it is the point when 100% R.H. is reached as

• At this time moisture will begin to condense out of

• Water/water vapour do not burn!

– Effective air/fuel ratio goes down

– The mixture effectively gets richer

Piston engines can lose up to 12% of their

Turbine engines can lose up to 3%