MARKET

VALUE ADDITION
YARNS

FIBRES FABRICS

TEXTILES
APPLICATION
PROCESSING
MANUFACTURE

PROPERTIES DESIGN
 TEXTILES
• A Textile is a flexible material comprised of a
network (interlacement / Interlooping / Bonded) of
natural or artificial FIBERS

• The term ‘Textile' is a Latin word taken from the

word ‘TEXERE' which means ‘to weave'.

• The term Textiles covers Fibres, Yarns and

Fabrics.
 Organizational Structure of
Textile Industry

Vertical Horizontal

This does not refer to the shape of the factory

but to the ways in which, the various parts of
the structure relate to each other..
Vertical Organization
A company which is structured in such a way that it
takes in a basic raw material and performs all of the
necessary processing functions to convert it into the
finished product is said to be vertical or vertically
organized..
 Vertical Structure

MacMillan Textiles Ltd.

Fibre Spin Yarn

Weave/Knit fabric

Wet processing

Making-up

End-product

Wholesale/retail
Horizontal Organization
A company that only performs part of the overall
manufacturing process, the products of which become
raw materials for the next company in the processing
sequence..
 Horizontal Structure

Fibre Spinners Yarn

Weavers Knitters

Fabric Fabric
Converters

Wet Processors

Making-up End-Product Wholesaler/Retailer

 Structure with both Vertical &
Horizontal elements

Weavers Yarn

Fibre Spin Yarn Knitters

Weave
Converters Wet processing Wet processing
Making-up

Making-up End-products

End-products Wholesale/retail

Wholesale/retail
 Manufacturing Sequence..

Raw Fibre
Spin

Yarn

Fabric Knit

Garment

The wet processor could have all the above stages as raw
material :
 PRODUCTION METHODS
DRY PROCESSING WET
• Fiber Processing PROCESSING
• Dry Spinning
• Weaving • Wet Spinning
• Knitting • Preparation Process
• Crocheting • Coloration Process
• Felting • Finishing Process
• Braiding
• Knotting
• Netting
Fibers
Fiber is a linear structure

How a Linear Structure Is Formed

?
 Polymerization
• A long continuous
chain formed by one
chemical or by the
reaction of more
chemicals that
produces a repetitive
chain.

• One unit that repeats in

polymer is called a
monomer.
Polymerization happens:
• As a natural process.(natural)
• With natural material under controlled
conditions.(man made)
• With synthetic material /chemicals under
controlled conditions.(synthetic)
The history of fibres is as old as human
civilization.

Traces of natural fibres have been located to

ancient civilizations all over the globe. For
many thousand years, the usage of fiber was
limited by natural fibres such as flax, cotton,
silk, wool and plant fibres for different
applications.

Flax is considered to be the oldest and the

most used natural fibre
since ancient times

15
 Fiber
• A basic and fundamental unit of textiles
• A long slender thread like structure of cell
• A smallest entity of textiles we wear

• A unit of matter which is capable of being spun into

a yarn or made into a fabric by bonding or by
interlacing in a variety of methods including
weaving, knitting, braiding, felting, twisting, or
webbing, and which is the basic structural element
of textile products.
• It is a smallest textile component which is
microscopic hair like substance that may be
man made or natural.

• They have length at least hundred times

to that of their diameter or width

• Fibres used for apparel range in length

from about 15mm to 150mm.

• Flax ranges up to 500mm and more

• Thickness of these fibres tend to range

from about 10µm to 50µm
 Staple Fiber
• A basic standard length of fiber is called staple
length
• The fibre can be a short staple or a long staple.
• It may be natural or continuous fibers may be
cut to a staple length
Filament
• A long continuous fibrous structure ranging
in length from a few hundred
meters (silk) to several kilometers
(man made fibres) Thickness of filaments is
silmilar to that of fibres

• Mono filament
– A strand containing a long continuous
filament

• Multi filament
– A strand containing 2 or more filaments
Properties of Textile Fiber
FIBRE MORPHOLOGY:

Macro structure of Micro structure of

fibre and filament fibre and filament

Fibre length Microscopic -

Fibre thickness Appearance
Length to breadth ratio Microscopic-
Colour longitudinal struc.
Translucency Microscopic-
Lustre cross sectional struc.
Sub Microscopic struc.
 Properties of Textile Fiber
Primary Secondary
• Fiber length • Evenness
• Tenacity • Porosity
• Cohesiveness • Resiliency
• Flexibility • Lustre
• Durability
• Shape and appearance
 PROPERTIES OF FIBRES
Properties of fibers can be classified
based on various factors like :-

– Visual / Physical properties

– Microscopic properties
– Chemical properties
– Mechanical properties
– Environmental & Biological properties
– Thermal properties
– Electrical properties
 Physical properties of FIBERS

Physical properties are those which can be seen in

appearance.

A) COLOUR
B) SHAPE
C) COVER
D) HAND
E) LUSTER
F) FIBRE LENGTH
 Fiber Length
• The average length of fiber is termed as
fiber length.
• The length is to make a long continuous
strand with small length staple fibers
minimum fiber length is 5mm.
• The fiber should have minimum length to
width ratio of 1:100.
 COLOUR

• COLOUR:- manufactured fibers are usually

white in color where as natural fiber may
vary in shades white to brown or tan to
black e.g. (color of wool fiber depends on
sheep )
 SHAPE
• SHAPE:- shape of a fiber is determined by its cross
sections .often it can also be included in microscopic
properties of fiber. All fibers have length ,cross section
,surface contour and diameter and also some fibers have
crimp.
• Length :fibers may be staple or filament
• Cross section :it is referred to the appearance of the fiber
when viewed across its diameter.
• Surface :surface contour is sometimes referred to as
longitudinal appearance.
• Diameter : it is the width of the cross section.
• Crimp : the wave or bump of the fiber.
 Fiber Fineness
• The fiber fineness is the relative measurement of its
size, diameter and linear density.
• It also suggests the uniformity of the fiber.
 Uniformity / Evenness
• Uniformity in thickness and length of fiber gives
more even and fine yarns resulting in fine
quality
 Cohesiveness.
• The property of an
individual fiber by
virtue of which the
fibers hold on one
another when spun
into yarn.
• For e.g, cotton’s
convolutions,wools
scales help them to
hold themselves.
 COVER

Cover is the ability to occupy an area

it varies from fiber to fiber
(e.g. wool, asbestos , flax, hemp etc)
 HAND

• Hand is the way a fiber feels when handled.

Fiber shapes vary and includes round, flat
and multimodal (e.g. soft, crisp, dry, silky
or harsh)
 LUSTER
Luster is the quality of fiber to reflect the light
from its surface.
• Different fibers have different luster properties.
• Silk has high luster in natural fibers.
• Most of the man made fibers have high degree of luster.
• The luster of fibers can be varied by different processes.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS
Chemical properties of fibers can be defined as those
properties of fibers which they exhibit when they come in
contact with any kind of chemicals.

It is very necessary to understand various chemical

properties of different fibers because

1. It relates directly to the care required in daily processing

like cleaning, washing and ironing .

2. Also because fibers usually come in contact with

chemicals during textile processing like dyeing and printing
and various other finishes.

Generally it can be said that synthetic fibers have less

chemical reactivity than natural fibers. But different fibers
react differently with various kinds of chemicals………..
 CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF
FIBERS
• Chemical properties of different fibers depend on the inbuilt properties of
fibers.

• Also the effect of a chemical on the fiber will be determined by:

• The type of chemical

• The strength of chemical and the strength of fiber
• Time of exposure of the fiber to the chemical.

• Chemical reactivity of different fibers basically includes:

• EFFECTS OF ALKALIES
• EFFECTS OF ACIDS
• EFFECTS OF OXIDISING AGENTS
• EFFECTS OF SOLVENTS
• ABSORBENCY / POROSITY
1. EFFECT OF ACIDS

The effect of acids on a fiber is determined by the type

and strength of the acid. mineral acids even in dilute
concentration will damage natural fibers like
cotton. however dilute concentrations of acids will not
harm protein fibers like wool (even they are used in
wool processing .

2. EFFECT OF ALKALIES

Alkalies do not harm natural cellulosic fibers such

as cotton which is often treated with NaOH to improve
its strength . various soaps and detergents are not
recommended for wool as they are alkaline in nature and
alkalis are not suitable for protein fibers.
3. EFFECTS OF OXIDISING AGENTS

Oxidizing agents such as chlorine bleach are used to

remove colors or stains in fibers. For example many
natural fibers are not white enough to give good dye
results, so they are treated with bleaches. However
chlorine based bleaches are not suitable for
protein fibers whereas it can safely be used on
nylon and polyester. Cotton requires controlled
bleaching.

4. EFFECTS OF SOLVENTS

Chemical solvents are used in dry cleaning. organic

solvents are used to remove oily stains and dirt.
Acetone is one of the solvents that will damage both
acetate and triacetate.
 Porosity
• Porosity is volume of air contained within the
volume of the fiber.
• This facilitates absorption of moisture, lubricants
and dyes.
• Natural fibers have higher porosity than
synthesized.
 Mechanical properties of fibers
The mechanical properties of fibers are determined in a
textile testing laboratory.
These procedures make possible accurate evaluation of
the quality of textile products.
» Abrasion Resistance
» Dimensional Stability
» Elastic Recovery
» Pilling
» Flexibility
» Resiliency or Wrinkle Recovery
» Specific Gravity or Density
» Tenacity
 Abrasion Resistance
Abrasion Resistance is the ability of a fiber to withstand the
effects of rubbing or friction. It is a significant factor in the
durability of a fiber. e.g
Nylon is used extensively in action outerwear, such as ski
jackets, because it is very strong and resists abrasion.
Excellent abrasion resistance -Nylon, Aramid
Poor abrasion resistance -Glass, Acetate.
Excellent abrasion resistance
 ABRASION RESISTANCE OF DIFFERENT
FIBRES

FAIR POOR
EXCELLENT GOOD GLASS
NYLON WOOL
COTTON ACETATE
POLYESTER SILK
RAYON TRIACETATE
RAYON-VISCOSE
DIMENSIONAL STABILITY:-
• It is the ability of a fiber to maintain its original shape,
neither shrinking nor stretching.
• Some varieties of Rayon and wool shrink progressively.

PILLING:-
Pilling is the formation of small balls of loose fibres on the
surface of a fabric, results from abrasion.The tumbling
action of washing and automatic drying may also cause
pilling.
Excellent against pilling- Rayon Cotton
Flax Glass

Poor against pilling - Nylon Polyester

 Excellent against pilling

Poor against pilling

polyester

nylon
ELASTIC RECOVERY:-
Ability of a fiber to return to its original
length.
Elastomeric fibers like spandex can be
stretched 100 percent and still return to its
original length.
Fibres with high Elastic Recovery recovers
its creep after being compressed.
 FLEXIBILITY

The ability of fiber to be plied or twisted without any

rupture to the fiber.

• Fibers that bend or fold easily have good

flexibility.

• The fiber should be sufficiently pliable so that it can

wrap around another fiber when spun. Stiff fibers are
hard to spin into yarn and create fabric with limited
consumer appeal.

• It contributes greatly to the drape of a fiber.

• All man made cellulosic fibers have good flexibility.

RESILIENCY OR WRINKLE RECOVERY:-
It is the ability of a fiber to return to its original shape after being bent or
folded. Fibres with good resiliency like polyester are often used in
apparel when retention of appearance is important.
Compressive resiliency or loft is the ability of a fiber to return to its
original thickness after it is crushed.

RESILIENCY OF DIFFERENT FIBRES

EXCELLENT GOOD FAIR POOR

Glass Wool Rayon
Nylon Triacetate Cotton
Silk
Polyester Acrylic Flax
Acetate
 Resiliency
• The resistance to compression, flexing or torsion is
termed as resiliency. Some fibers have natural
tendency to return to their original condition after
the applied force is removed.

• This is an important factor considered while

selecting the fibres for carpet.
 Tenacity / Fibre Strength
• The strength of material, when it is loaded along
its load axis is called tensile strength or tenacity of
the fiber .
• In general, strong fibers last longer and provide
more service than do weak fibers.
• Tenacity or Fiber strength, is important factor
contributing to the wear life of a textile product.
• Nylon, Aramid and Glass fibers are noted for their
strength. Acetate and Acrylic are relatively weak,
in contrast.
 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF
MAJOR TEXTILE FIBRES
FIBER STRENGTH RESILIENCY
ABRASION PILLNG SPECIFIC
DENIER RESISTANCE RESISTANCE GRAVITY
COTTON GOOD 3.0-5.0 GOOD POOR EXCELLENT 1.54

FLAX EXCELLENT 6.6-8.4 FAIR POOR EXCELLENT 1.52

WOOL POOR 0.8-2.0 FAIR GOOD FAIR 1.32

SILK GOOD 3.9-4.5 FAIR FAIR GOOD 1.30

RAYON-VISCOSE FAIR 0.7-6.0 FAIR POOR GOOD 1.54

ACETATE POOR 0.8-1.5 POOR POOR GOOD 1.32

TRIACETATE POOR POOR GOOD GOOD 1.30

ACRYLIC FAIR 1.8-3.5 POOR GOOD FAIR 1.19

GLASS EXCELLENT 6.0-7.0 POOR EXCELLENT EXCELLENT 2.54

NYLON EXCELLENT 2.5-7.5 EXCELLENT EXCELLENT POOR 1.14

POLYESTER EXCELLENT 2.5-9.5 EXCELLENT EXCELLENT POOR 1.38

SPANDEX POOR 0.6-0.9 POOR EXCELLENT EXCELLENT 1.21

 ENVIRONMENTAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS

Environmental properties or the various biological properties of fibers

are important as it will determine the effect of various climatic
conditions , micro organism and insects on textile products.

Environmental or biological properties of fibers include:

1. SENSITIVITY TO THE CLIMATE

2. SENSITIVITY TO MICROORGANISMS

3. SENSITIVITY TO INSECTS
 SENSITIVITY TO CLIMATE

Exposure to sunlight and air pollution will cause some fibers to

deteriorate. for example cotton and flax looses its strength after long
exposure to sunlight. white wool and silk turns yellow on prolonged
exposure to sunlight.

SENSITIVITY TO MICROORGANISMS

Most synthetic fibers remain unaffected by microorganisms but fibers

like cotton and regenerated cellulosic get discolored and eventually
rots by microorganisms like mold and mildew

SENSITIVITY TO INSECTS

Insects such as moths, carpet beetles and silverfish can attack fibers.
Wool is specially susceptible to attack from moths and carpet
beetles. Silverfish will attack cotton and regenerated cellulosic fibres
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF FIBERS

Thermal properties of fibers are those properties which are

exhibited by a fiber when they are exposed to heat directly
or if exposed to similar conditions

Thermal properties of fiber include:

• EFFECTS OF HEAT
• FLAMMABILITY.
 EFFECTS OF HEAT
• The reaction to heat may take the form of melting or
shrinking.
• Different Fibers react differently to heat.
• The heating causes decomposition & weakens the fabric
considerably.
• Most synthetic fibers are thermoplastic (fibers melt or
soften when exposed to heat).
• The suitable treatment of fibers can give a fair degree of
resistance to fiber.
FABRIC MIN & MAX (TEMP)

COTTON 1500C & 2460C

WOOL 2260C & 5720C
SILK 3300C & 3300C
VISCOSE RAYON 3000C & 4000C
NYLON 1500C & 2150C
POLYESTER 2490C & 2900C
 Heat Setting
• Applying heat and pressure in a controlled
manner, permanently changes the shape and
improves the dimensional stability of
thermoplastic fibres.

• The fibers, yarns and fabrics are very stable

at temperatures lower than those at which
they were set.
 FLAMMABILITY
It is the important factor considered for the
suitability to end use
• Fibers react differently to flames.
• Some fibers will ignite, some don't.
• Cellulose fibers are most flammable ones.
(cotton, flax, viscose)
• Acetate and triacetate burn immediately
• Nylon, polyester, acrylic, spandex don’t catch
fire but melt and form hard beads
• Protein based wool & silk are less
flammable. They burn slowly.

• The Inorganic fibers like asbestos, glass,

and metal do not burn.
 ELECTRICAL
CONDUCTIVITY
• Fibers that do not conduct electrical charges
create static electricity.
• Hydrophobic fibers tend to have low
electrical conductivity because of their low
absorbency.
• Synthetic fibers are poor conductors of
electricity.
• Synthetic fiber materials are charged with static
electricity so it attracts the dust & dirt particles
and it becomes easily soiled

• The fabrics like cotton, wool and other fabrics

retain moisture, the static leaks away to earth, just
as fast as it is formed, via the metal parts of the
machinery used & so causes no trouble.
 Factors of Consideration by Textile Engineer
The textile and polymer engineer must consider a number of
criteria essential for formation, fabrication, and assembly of
fibers into textile substrates.
 Ideally a textile fiber should have the following properties:

1. A melting and/or decomposition point above 220°C

2. A tensile strength of 5 gpd or greater
3. Elongation at break above 10% with reversible elongation strain
4. A moisture absorptive of 2%-5% moisture uptake
5. Combined moisture regain and air entrapment capability
6. High abrasion resistance
7. Resistance to attack, swelling, or solution in solvents, acids, and
bases
8. Self-extinguishing when removed from a flame
CLASSIFICATION OF FIBRES
CLASSIFICATION OF TEXTILE FIBERS
 NATURAL FIBERS OF VEGITABLE ORIGIN

These fibers obtained from different parts of plants are known as

vegetable fibers.
The vegetable fibers are all based upon cellulose, the substance
which the plant builds up from water and carbon dioxide gas
absorbed through its leaves. They are also called cellulosic fibers.

The cellulosic fibers classified most conveniently by referring to

the part of the plant from which they come.
There are three main groups:

1. The bast or stem fibers, which form the fibrous bundles in

the inner bark of the stems of dicotyledonous plants.
2. The leaf fibers, which run lengthwise through the leaves of
monocotyledonous plants.
3. The fibers of seeds and fruits, including the true seed-hairs
and the flosses.
 COTTON
COTTONFIBER
FIBER

Cotton is the most important natural textile fiber, as well as

cellulosic textile fiber. Cotton is a hair attached to the seed of the
cotton plant, or the genus of a plant known as Gossypium.
 COTTON FIBER PRODUCTION

1. Cultivation
Cotton is a warm-weather plant, cultivated in both hemispheres.
Cotton requires about 6 months of continuous warm weather with
adequate moisture and sun light.

Each cotton seed may produce as many as 20,000 fibers on its

surface. An average boll will contain nearly 500,000 fibers of
cotton and each plant may bear up to 100 bolls.
2. Fiber formation and growth
The individual cotton fiber is a seed-hair consisting of a single
cell. It grows from the epidermis or outer skin of the cotton seed.
Each cotton fiber is a single, elongated, complete cell that
develops in the surface layer of cells of the cottonseed.

3. Harvesting
Harvesting (gathering of a ripened cotton crop) time for cotton
varies with locality.
Harvesting is one of the final and most important steps in the
production of a cotton crop, as the crop must be harvested before
the weather can damage the quality and reduce the yield.
Harvesting can be done by hand or mechanically.
Mechanically harvested cotton, either with cotton picker
machines (cotton burr remains attached to the stalk) or with stripper
machines (cotton burr is removed along with the seed cotton), can
contain more trash and other irregularities than hand-harvested
cotton.

4. Ginning
After harvesting, the cotton fiber has to be separated from the
seeds; a process carried out mechanically by the cotton gin.
“Ginning is the separation of the fibers from cotton seed.”
Ginning operations are normally considered to include:
 Conditioning (through drying),
seed–fiber separation,
cleaning (to remove plant trash), and
packaging (bale formation).

bale
 There are two forms of ginning machines in general use:
1. the saw gin and
2. the roller gin.

The Saw Gin: This consists of a steel grating in which is narrow

slits. Through these come toothed saws that revolve, catching the
fibers in their teeth and pulling them through the slits.

The Roller Gin: This consists of leather discs attached to a

wooden roller.
Fibers can pass but seeds cannot.
 Ginned cotton is pressed and packed into bales.
 The bales into which cotton is packed are of varying
dimensions, volumes, densities, and weights and are mainly
covered with woven polypropylene, polyethylene film, burlap, or
cotton fabrics.
Raw cotton fiber after ginning and mechanical cleaning is
approximately 95% cellulose. The composition of cotton fiber is
given below (% on dry weight of fiber).
The non-cellulosic constituents include proteins, amino acids,
other nitrogen-containing compounds, wax, pectic substances,
organic acids, sugars, inorganic salts, and a very small amount of
pigments.
Table: Composition of cotton fiber
Constituent Typical Range
(% dry weight) (% dry weight)

Cellulose 95 88.0 – 96.0

Protein 1.3 1.1 – 1.9

Pectin 0.9 0.7 - 1.2

Ash 1.2 0.7 – 1.6

Wax 0.6 0.4 – 1.0

Total sugars 0.3 0.1 – 1.0

Organic acids 0.8 0.5 – 1.0

Pigment Trace -

Others 1.4 -

Note: Pls refer hand out for further explanation

 COTON CLASSIFICATION

Cotton classification is a practical, cost-efficient way of

measuring the general quality and physical attributes of bales of
cotton fiber that affect the quality of the finished product and
manufacturing efficiency and allows a market value

Quality is even more important to the users of cotton because it

is highly related to efficiency in manufacturing and to the
quality and utilization of yarns and fabrics produced, as well as
to effecting the dyeing and finishing processes and outcome.
There are two methods for estimating fiber quality, expert
appraisal by a trained classer, and instrumentation.

The quality parameters include: Amount of foreign matter

(trash content), preparation (ginning quality), Color and luster,
Fiber length and regularity, Fiber fineness, and strength.

The cotton classification system involves grade, staple length,

fineness and strength. Grade is generally determined from three
factors i.e. (a) color, (b) trash content and (c) ginning quality.
Color - Best cotton is only white in colour. But continued exposure
to weathering and micro-organisms cause white cotton to lose its
brightness.

Trash Content - The trash includes such materials as leaf, stems,

hulls, bark, seeds, shale, motes, grass, sand, oil and dust. Cottons
which contain minimum amount of trash after ginning have
highest spinning value.

Quality of Ginning: Presence of neps and naps are two

important factors to determine the quality of cotton.
۞ Neps are small tangled knots of fiber that are visible as dots.
This type of cotton is known as neppy cotton.
۞ Naps are large clumps or matted masses of fibers that
contribute to the rough appearance. This type of cotton is known
as nappy cotton

Staple Length: Fiber length is determined by instrument

measurement of a tuft of fibers prepared automatically by the
mechanical sampler
Fiber Strength: Fiber strength measurements are made on the
same specimen used in making the length measurement.
.

STRUCTURE OF COTTON FIBER

The longitudinal and crossecetional features of cotton fiber are
shown below. Inside the boll the fiber assumes tubular round
structure, but on maturity when the boll splits open and the
fiber dries the fiber assumes a ribbon-like convoluted structure
with a kidney/bean shaped crossection.

Figure 1. Longitudinal view of cotton

fiber showing ribbon-like convoluted
structure

Figure 2. Cross sectional view of

cotton fiber showing kidney-shaped
The morphological structure of cotton fiber consists of four
parts. These are
(a) Cuticle, (b) Primary wall, (c) Secondary wall and (d) Lumen.

Figure 3. Morphology of cotton

The cuticle of cotton fiber is a very thin layer tightly attached to
the outside of the primary wall. The cuticle consists of cotton
wax, a complex mixture of fats, waxes and oils.

The primary wall is built up from cellulose. It also contains

pectineous substances. On the surface, the molecular chains in
the primary wall are arranged in a random manner without any
orientation and definite order.
The cuticle-primary wall layer serves as a protective shell for the
fiber against mechanical and chemical damage.
Beneath the outer shell is the secondary wall which makes up
the bulk of the fiber.

Cotton is very nearly pure cellulose. All the hydroxyl groups

are hydrogen bonded. The hydrogen bonds will hold several
adjacent chains in close aligned to form crystalline areas
called micro fibrils. These micro fibrils intern align
themselves with each other to form large fibrils.
Between the crystalline regions in cotton, amorphous
unordered regions are found. Pores, Voids, spaces,
irregularities in structure will occur in these
amorphous areas. Approximately 70% of the cotton
The
fiberlumen in the center of the fiber is a narrow canal-like
is crystalline.
structure running the length of the fiber. The lumen carries
nutrients to the fibers during growth, but on maturity, the fiber
dries and the lumen collapses.
 Property of cotton fiber
1. Physical properties
a. Staple Length – the maximum distance b/n straightened fiber.
The staple length of cotton varies from 1 cm to 8 cm for d/t
classes.
Longer fibers produce stronger yarn
Sea Island = 5.0 cm and more
Egyptian = 3.8 – 4.4 cm
Brazilian = 2.5 – 3. 8 cm
American = 2.5 – 3.0 cm
Indian = 2.0 – 2.5 cm
China = 1.5 – 2.0 cm
b. Fiber Fineness – relative measure of size, dia., linear density
or wt per unit length.
Denier = M/L * 9000,M= wt in gm, L= length of fiber in m
Tex = M/L * 1000
Count (Ne) = l/g …. mm/mg, m/g, km/kg
The diameter of cotton is variable at different places b/c of
the convolutions.
c. Fiber Uniformity – Cotton can’t be considered as a uniform
material b/c of variations in length, strength, fineness, etc.
Longer cotton tends to become uniform in length than shorter
d. Porosity – Cotton fiber is porous and The pore arises from
imperfections in the lateral packing of micro structural elements.
Fine cottons are more compacted than coarse variety.
The pore of cotton fiber influence properties and reactivity of
the fiber in the presence of water.
e. Luster – the shininess of the fiber. The natural luster of cotton
fiber is determined by:
fiber shape and
fiber polish
f. Moisture – due to the imperfections in the packing of the
fibrils, the fiber absorbs moisture.
The moisture absorption takes place on the surface of the
fibrils.
The amount of moisture in cotton depends on the relative
humidity and the temp. of the air.
At higher humidity, the fiber absorbs more moisture as a result
of breakage of hydrogen bonds in non-crystalline region and
availability of more hydroxyl groups.
g. Strength – the ability of a fiber to resist a tension before
breakage.
•It varies widely from fiber to fiber:
•Matured and coarse = 9-13 gm/fiber
•Matured and intermediate fine = 4-9 gm/fiber
•Immature = 0.5-1 gm/fiber
•The strength of the fiber increases at higher humidity or at
higher moisture.
•At higher RH, moisture or water penetrates inside amorphous
region, breaks the intermolecular forces.
h. Elongation – when load is applied the length increases.
The change in length with respect to the original length is defined
as extension or elongation
Average fiber elongation at break is about 5-10 %.
Cotton being composed of mainly cellulose, its chemical
properties are mostly influenced by the chemical ch’cs of cellulose.
2. Chemical Properties of Cotton
a. Action of heat – cotton fiber ignites easily and burns with an
odor similar to burning paper.
It burns with a bright flame w/c continues even after the fiber is
removed from the fire.
After the flame has been extinguished, the fiber continues to
smolder and smoke ….This is typical test of cellulose.
The temperature of drying should not exceed 93 0C not to spoil
the effect of bleaching.
b. Action of Light – when cotton is is exposed to air in the
presence of sunlight for a long period, oxycellulose is gradually
formed accompanied by tendering b/c of atmospheric oxygen.
c. Action of Water – Raw cotton is very hard to wet b/c of the
wax present on the surface of the fiber.
Cold water swells cotton without any chemical damage….
Convolutions are removed, more regular c/s
Swelling ….only in the amorphous region.
d. Action of Acids – Cold diluted mineral acids have no effect
even at boil.
 Cold conc. Sulpheric acid dissolves cellulose and forms
cellulose hydrate…. HCl affect more severely than H2SO4.

e. Action of Alkalis
•Cotton is more resistant to alkalis than acids.
•With alkalis… scouring, bleaching and mercerization is done.
•Cotton is attacked and degraded by strong hot alkalis…. Rate of
degradation serious in the presence of air and higher temp.
f. Action of Micro-Organisms – Many micro-organisms attack
cotton.
Numerous fungi cause mildew(yeast). The mildew discolors rots
and weakens the fiber.
 Uses of Cotton
Cotton is easily dye able by many dyes.
B/c of its appreciable good properties, it is used for most types
of garments. It is used for:
Its good moisture absorption capacity make it very important to
be used for under wears as it absorbs perspiration and gives
body comfort.
Durability against ironing (heat), versatility, availability, lost
cost...
Cotton is used with many fibers in blend form to share some
properties. The most commonly used blend is polyester/cotton
(P/C) blend.
 BAST FIBERS: PRODUCTION AND END USE

Bast fibers are obtained from the inner bark of the stems
of plants called decotyledennes. The most important ones in the
group are flax, jute, ramie, hemp, and sunn.
They are made up of long, thick-walled cells glued together
by non cellulosic materials (pectin's and lignin's) resulting in
long fiber bundles running the entire length of the stem.
The amount of non-cellulosic gummy substances varies from
one type of fiber to other. E.g.. Jute and Ramie contain 20-
30%, flax contains around 8%.
1. Jute
Jute occupies second place, next to cotton in the world’s
production of natural fibers.
India and Bangladesh are the largest producers – 85%.
It is obtained from the stem of jute plant.
The bundles of the fibers are present in the bark of the plant.
Jute has the highest lignin content … about 20%
Extraction of the fiber from the plant… Retting
Properties: jute do not stretch, stiff, less strong than flax and
hemp and has high moisture absorbency (23%)
Uses: Jute is cheap and reasonably cheap and is available in
large quantities….. Important for sacks and packing clothes.
It is used for hessian, sacking, backing for rugs, webbing,
carpets, wall coverings, thread yarns, canvas, boot and shoe
lining, matting and beltings.
2. Linen
It is obtained from the stalk of flax plant.
It is the first fiber used by man for making textiles.
The fibers are separated from the gummy substance by retting.
Linen fiber is relatively smooth, straight and lustrous.
It is the strongest fiber available from natural origin (5.8 g/dtex).
Its average length is 45 - 60 cm.
It is more brittle and less flexible than cotton fiber.
It has a moisture regain of about 12%. It is 12% stronger when
wet than dry.
Uses: household clothing, fabrics, lace, sheetings, canvas,
paper making, home furnishing and upholstery.
The ability of linen to absorb water rapidly is particularly
useful in the towel trade.
3. Hemp
Hemp comes from a plant Cannabis Sativa which grows to a
height of 3m or more.
Hemp plant is harvested and processed similar to flax.
Fiber is removed from the woody matter by retting.
Hemp is strong and durable and is used very largely for
making string, cord and rope.
Strands of the fiber reach 2m in length.
Uses: for coarse fabrics such as sacking and canvas and for
making ropes and twines.
 OTHER PLANT FIBERS

A. Leaf Fibers
Leaf fibers are obtained from the leaves of monocotyledonous
plants.
Leaf fibers are coarser than bast (Inside Bark Of Stem)
fibers…. used for making ropes
E.g. Sisal, Pineapple
1. Sisal
It is obtained from the leaf of sisal plant.
It is an important leaf fiber b/c of its quality and applications.
Strands of sisal fiber are 60-120 cm in length.
The fibers are removed from the leaf by scrapping away the
pulp material… decortications.
Uses: Sisal fiber is coarse and strong. So is used for making
ropes, sail cloth, sacks and carpets. It is also used for bristles of
inexpensive brushes.
It is also used for ladies hats.
2. Pineapple
Pineapple fiber is a soft fiber extracted from the leaves of the
pineapple plant.
Pineapple fiber is more ordered i.e., it is more crystalline.
The strength and elongation is comparable to cotton fiber.
It is used mostly for making ropes, table clothes, mats, hand
bags, etc.
 B. Seed hair fibers
Coir: it is obtained from the husk of the fruit of cocoanut tree.
The extraction of the fiber from the husk involves: retting,
cleaning, drying and combining.
Fiber length is 3 – 18 cm.
Uses: it is used for upholstery, cordage, mats, carpets, ropes,
packing material, for thermal insulation.
Coir has been used in plastic composites also.
 NATURAL FIBER OF ANIMAL ORIGION (Protein Fibers)
All proteins are high molecular cpds occurring in nature as
tissues of plants and animals.
Protein fibers are textile fiber in which their main chemical
composition is protein.
All proteins contain C, H, O, and N. Some proteins contain S, P,
Fe or halogens.
All proteins are composed of amino acids in a condensed form.
When amino acids join or condense together, they give peptide
links. Many amino acids … polypeptide.
 Two major types of protein fibers: Wool (hair) and insect
secreted (silk) fibers
 Wool is obtained from hair of sheep and silk is a secretion
product from insects

 Other animal fibers are also obtained from skin of variety of

animals
 There is limited success in the production of secreted fibers
other than silk
 WOOL FIBER

 Wool fiber is most important animal fiber from sheep.

 It is the fibrous covering of sheep of various breeds.

 Wool is the fiber derived from the specialized skin cells, called
follicles (mammalian skin organ producing hair).

 Fiber grows from small sacs of follicles in the skin.

 WOOL FIBER PRODUCTION
Typical mass production of sheep wool:

 Remove the wool

 Skirt the fleece

 Class the fleece

 Place it in the appropriate wool bin

 Press and store

SHEARING
 Shearing or clipping is the process by which the woolen
fleece of a sheep is cut off.
 Shearing can be carried out by hand (blade) shearers
and mechanical shearers.
 Blade shears consist of two blades arranged similar to
scissors.
 Machine shears (hand-pieces) operate in a similar
manner to human hair-clippers.
 In machine shears a power-driven toothed
blade, known as a cutter, is driven back
and forth over the surface of a comb and
the wool is cut from the animal.
Shearer
110
 SKIRTING
Skirting is separation of belly wool and other inferior wool
from the rest of the fleece.

 Throw the fleece flesh side down, so the dirty end of fleece
faces up

 Remove off-color wool, very short and matted wool and

other contaminated areas ,stains, clumsy vegetable matters
and so on.
112
  WOOL CLASSING
 Examination of the wool quality by a registered and qualified wool
classer is known as wool classing.

 The quality of wool varies greatly with the breed of sheep, conditions under
which it has lived, the characteristics of the individual sheep, and upon the
region of the sheep's body in which the wool has grown.

 Grading and sorting is essential process in wool fiber production.

 Among different parameters commercial grades of wool are based primarily

on fineness or diameter of fiber.

 Place in wool bin and press to form wool bale

Different grades or classes of wool should be packaged separately and stored.

 COMPOSITION OF WOOL FIBER

 The major protein constituent of wool fiber is a complex

protein known as keratin.
 Wool contains regular keratins in a complex mixture with
proteins of irregular structure.
 In addition to keratin raw wall consists of impurities.

Component % composition
Keratin 33
Grease 28
Suint 12
Sand and dirt 26
Vegetable matter 1
 Grease: Wool fat is a yellowish wax like substance and is
derived from fatty acids and cholesterol.
Suint: is a complex mixture derived from sweat.
Sand and Dirt: The fiber, in its natural state, also contains a
considerable amount of dirt. This is held by the adhesive
action of the grease.
Vegetable matter: This represents the presence of
vegetable particles on the surface of wool.
 STRUCTURE OF WOOL FIBER

LONGITUDINAL AND CROSSECTIONAL VIEW

 Cylindrical with characteristic crimps along the length

 Nearly circular or round cross section

 Overlapping scales on the surface along the fiber length

 SUBMICROSCOPIC VIEW
 Consists of cuticle (epicuticle & scale layer), cortex and medulla
 Cortical cells are spindle-shaped embedded in matrix complex
 FINE STRUCTURE OF WOOL

The orthocortex and paracortex spiral around each other resulting wool crimp
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE

119
HELICAL STRUCTURE OF WOOL

DP = 600 & Mwt = 68,000g/mol

The helical fibrils associate

themselves to create a crystalline
region in the fiber with approximate
degree of crystallinity of 40%.

The irregularity (amorphous region) in

wool which accounts for about 60% is
mainly due to the irregular protein
matrix structure embedding the helical
keratins (crosslinking and complex
amino acid composition).
 OTHER STRUCTURAL FEATURES

STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTIC RANGE

FEATURE

Length Fine Wools [50 -120 mm]

Medium Wools [120 - 150 mm]
Long Wools [Over 150mm]

Diameter Merino Wool [15 - 23 m]

Medium Wool [24 - 34 m]
Long Wool [About 40 m]
 Crimp  Merino [12 waves per cm or 30 per
inch]
 Lower Quality [Less than or equal to
2 per cm or 5 per inch]
Color  White or near - white, Yellowish, but
may be brown to black

Lusture  Coarse fibers, high; fine fibers lower

NB: Various breeds of sheep from different countries are

available.
 WOOL FIBER PROPERTIES
Low to moderate tenacity, high elongation and
excellent elastic recovery
Excellent moisture absorbency and transmission
Light weight and moderate to high luster /hand
Good insulator
Little affected by heat up to 1500C; does not burn
easily
No static charge build up
Affected by sunlight [UV in particular]
Good acid resistance and attack by alkali and
oxidizing agents
Attacked by some insects and has good resistance to
microorganisms
 PARAMETER CHARACTERISTIC VALUE
Tenacity 1 – 1.7 gpd [Dry]
0.8 - 1.6 gpd [Wet]
Elongation 25 - 35% [Dry]
25 - 50 % [Wet]
Elastic recovery 99 % at 2 % extension
65 % at 20 % extension
Specific gravity 1.28 - 1.32
Moisture regain 15 - 18 %
 WOOL FIBER: APLLICATIONS

 Cold clothing Wool is used in men's and

 Comfort clothing women's apparel [sweaters,

 Light weight garments dresses, coats, suits, jackets,

pants and the lining of boots],
 Aesthetic clothing
outer wear and cold weather
 (Luxurious garments)
clothing, blankets, upholstery
 Fire extinguishing
and carpeting. It is often used
blankets
in blends with cellulosic and
man-made fibers.
 SILK FIBER
 Silk is the only natural filament fiber.

 Silk is a secreted animal fiber obtained from insects.

 Silk is produced from an insect called the "silkworm” which is

the caterpillar of a small off-white moth belonging to the species
Bombyx Mori [Domesticated Silkworm].

 The fiber is obtained from the cocoon of the larva of moth.

MOTH EGG

PUPA CATERPILLAR
[Larva] 126
 PRODUCTION OF SILK FBER

 SERICULTURE

Sericulture is the rearing of the silkworm for silk production.

 The silk worm lives on one thing only - the leaves of the
mulberry tree.

 After eggs are laid they hatch in to small caterpillars.

 Feeding and sleeping (moulting period): During this stage the

silkworms do nothing but eat, except for four periods of sleep
lasting a day at a time.

 During moulting they shed their skins and grow new ones.
 COCOON PRODUCTION
Secretion of silk liquid (fibroin protein) from two glands through spinneret
in the head of the silk worm

As it emerges the liquid silk hardens into very fine filaments

They are coated and cemented together by a gummy substance (serecin),

which comes from two other glands nearby.

Movement of the silkworm in a figure 8 scheme during secretion

Formation of a casing (shell) for the larva called cocoon.

To make ready for reeling the pupa is killed by drying/steaming.

 REELING

Reeling is the process of unwinding of the silk from the cocoon

• Cooking to soften the silk gum known as serecin

• Brushing the cocoon to find the outside ends of the filament

• Crossing of filaments to remove excess moisture and for

cohesion (structure or solidity)

• Winding on reel
 STRUCTURE OF SILK
FIBER
The basic fiber substance is Fibroin made from long-chain
protein molecules. Each of the two individual fibroin
filaments is constructed from fibrillar bundles.

Absence of crosslinks and limited bulky side chains present in the

amino acids of fibroin leading to close packing.

The fibrillar bundles are disposed in crystalline layers

with small portion of amorphous regions in between.

The silk gum, or sericin, surrounds the two

filaments and holds them together.

Seen under the microscope, raw silk has a

rough and irregular surface.
 STRUCTURE OF SILK FIBER
• The fibroin is made up of a series of different amino acids.
The most important amino acids are Glycine, Alanine and
Serine.

• Serecin also contains various amino acids like fibroin.

• Hydrogen bonds are formed between the CO and NH

groups.

• Secondary forces are formed between individual

polypeptide chains.

• Pleated sheet arrangement of chains --- Formation of

crystalline order
 SILK FIBER: Salient Features

PARAMETER CHARCTERISTIC VALUE

Length 1000 - 1300m
Diameter 0.013 - 0.08 mm
Color Cream to yellow
Lusture Bright with gum out

NB: Similar chemical property with wool since both are made
up of protein.
….SILK FIBER: Salient
Features

PARAMETER CHARCTERISTIC VALUE

Tenacity 2.5 - 5 gpd [Dry], 75 - 85 % of dry strength [Wet]

Elongation 20 - 25 %

Elastic recovery Between wool and cotton

Specific gravity 1.34 [Raw Silk], 1.25 [Boiled off silk]

Heat Conductivity Low

Moisture regain 11 %

Effect of light Weakened

Effect of heat 170 oC (Decomposition Temperature)

 SILK FIBER: APPLICATIONS
Silk fabrics have pleasing appearance [Luster]
Silk is highly moisture absorbent and has good to excellent
resistance to wrinkling
Silk's good absorbency makes comfortable to wear in warm
weather and while active.
Its low conductivity keeps warm air close to the skin during
cold weather.
Excellent aesthetic properties make it useful for high-
fashion luxury textile goods.
Silk is used extensively in luxury fabrics and apparel and
home furnishings, and in accessories such as scarf's.
 NATURAL FIBERS OF MINERAL ORIGIN

• The only useful natural fiber of mineral origin is ASBESTOS.

• Asbestos is the name given to fibrous, naturally occurring silicate minerals.

• Such minerals crystallize in fibrous form and useful in textile applications.

• Asbestos has excellent tensile strength.

• For all practical purposes most forms of asbestos are inert.

• Asbestos is resistant to heat and most chemicals.

• They are insoluble in water and organic solvents and are nonflammable.

• Asbestos is inherently (naturally) electrical insulator.

• Used in construction materials, pipe insulation, conveyer belts, gaskets, ropes and others
where strength and inertness is preliminary requirement.

• Asbestos exposure can lead to the development of serious health problems.

 Fiber Identification
Soda ash Caustic Sodium Hydro Nitric Nitric acid Sulphuri Sulphuri Burning in Microscopic Remarks
test 40% sol. soda hypo chloric acid 70% c acid c acid Flame View
25% sol. chloride acid 15% 15% 70%
fiber 40%

swells Swells& Whitened Turns Opens up &looses strength Dissolves on Dissolves Burns continuously Longitudinal twists. Resistance to alkalis.
Cotton yellowish heating quickly leaving grey ash of
Shines Dissolves slowly
burning paper smell

jute -do- -do- -do- --- --- -do -do Dissolves -do Longitudinal -Rough handle
irregular lines
-

Coir --- --- Color --- --- --- Dissolves Dissolves -do- Opaque thick serations
turns pale on slowly black ash Brittle & resistant to
prolonged chemicals
heating

Viscose Swells Swells & Gets Turns Dissolve Dissolves Dissolves Dissolves Burns continuously Longitudinal Soft filaments
slowly weakened yellow s on leaving grey ash of regular lines good luster
quickly burning paper smell
dissolves heating

Looses Dissolves Dissolves --- --- Dissolves --- Dissolves Self extinguishing Densed centre coating
Silk
Leaves crushable
strength slowly partial;ly line Uneven Delicate lustrous
Black beads
filaments

-do- -do- Dissolves --- --- Dissolves --- Dissolves Self extinguishing Scales Rough crimpy
Wool
slowly slowly Leaves crushable structure fibers
Black beads
Fish

Polyester --- --- --- --- --- Dissolves transperan Dissolves Burns& stops Translucent& Resistant to
slowly on t hard slowly leaving semi uniform chemicals
prolonged beads.
treatment

Acrylic --- --- --- --- --- Looses --- Turns Dissolves & Turns Burns & stops Translucent&
strength yellowish yellowish brown Out of flame uniform
& dissolves brown Leaving dark hard Lofty & more
slowly beads voluminous

Nylon --- --- --- --- --- Looses --- Dissolves Burns & stops Translucent& Strong
strength slowly Out of flame uniform More elastic
Leaving dark hard
beads
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