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A very small amount of ionizing radiation could trigger cancer in the

long term even though it may take decades for the cancer to appear
appear..
Ionizing radiation (x
(x--rays, radon gas, radioactive material) can cause
leukemia and thyroid cancer
cancer.. There is no doubt that radiation can cause
cancer, but there still is a question of what level of radiation it takes to
cause cancer
cancer..
G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION a
Rapidly dividing cells are more susceptible to radiation damage.
damage.
Examples of radiosensitive cells are blood forming cells (bone marrow),
intestinal lining, hair follicles and fetuses.
fetuses. Hence, these develop cancer
first..
first

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION u

º
  
 

The unit used to measure radiation dosage is the rem, which stands for

oentgen quivalent in an. It represents the amount of radiation

needed to produce a particular amount of damage to living tissue. The
total dose of rems determines how much harm a person suffers.

At Hiroshima and Nagasaki, people received a dose of rems at the

instant of the explosions, then more from the surroundings and, in
limited areas, from  . Fallout is composed of radioactive particles
that are carried into the upper atmosphere by a nuclear explosion and
that eventually fall back to the earth's surface.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION Œ

Radiation specialists use the unit ³rem´ (or sievert) to describe the
amount of radiation dose someone received. We are going to use that
unit throughout the sections. Without getting into technical specifics
about that unit, it is enough to know that it indicates a measure of how
much radiation energy is absorbed in our body.

And, as we will see in other sections, the total energy that is absorbed
and its effectiveness in causing change is the basis for determining
whether health effects may result.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION è

 

Biological effect begins with the ionization of atoms.

The mechanism by which radiation causes damage to human tissue, or

any other material, is by ionization of atoms in the material.

Ionizing radiation absorbed by human tissue has enough energy to

remove electrons from the atoms that make up molecules of the tissue.
When the electron that was shared by the two atoms to form a molecular
bond is dislodged by ionizing radiation, the bond is broken and thus, the
molecule falls apart. This is a basic model for understanding radiation
damage. When ionizing radiation interacts with cells, it may or may not
strike a critical part of the cell.

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We consider the chromosomes to be the most critical part of the cell
since they contain the genetic information and instructions required for
the cell to perform its function and to make copies of itself for
reproduction purposes. Also, there are very effective repair mechanisms
at work constantly which repair cellular damage - including
chromosome damage. How energy from radiation is transferred to the
body depends on the type of radiation. Visible light and infrared
radiation, for example, transfer their energy to entire molecules. The
absorbed energy causes greater molecular vibration, which can be
measured as heat (or thermal energy).

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION [

With many forms of ionizing radiation, energy is transferred to electrons
that surround atomic nuclei. Atoms affected by x rays usually absorb
enough energy to lose some of their electrons, and so become ionized.
(An atom is ionized when it gains or loses electrons.) Ultraviolet
radiation causes electrons to absorb energy and jump to a higher energy
orbit around the atomic nucleus. The sun and sunlamps emit enough
ultraviolet radiation to cause sunburn, premature aging of the skin, and
skin cancers. Exposure of humans and animals to ultraviolet radiation
also results in the production of vitamin D, a biochemical necessary for
good health.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION ‰

Radiation that consists of charged particles can knock electrons out of
their orbit around atoms. This also creates ions. Such radiation can also
cause atoms to enter an exited state, if the electrons are bumped into
higher-energy orbits. These changes result in atoms and molecules
(including biochemicals) that are chemically reactive. Seeking to become
stable, they interact with unaffected atoms and molecules, which may be
damaged (i.e., changed) in the process, and are then unable to perform
their usual metabolic functions.

For example, nuclear material such as DNA molecules may be damaged

to the degree that they can no longer be accurately copied. This may lead
to impaired cell function, cell death, or genetic abnormalities.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION ·

ë     ë  ë   
 

ü 
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Ionization may form       which in some cases
alter the structure of the cells. These        as
those changes that occur naturally in the cell and may have no negative
effect.

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Some ionizing events produce substances not normally found in the cell.
These can lead to a breakdown of the cell structure and its components.
Cells can repair the damage if it is limited. Even damage to the
chromosomes is usually repaired.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION Î

Many thousands of chromosome aberrations (changes) occur constantly
in our bodies. We have effective mechanisms to repair these changes.

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If a damaged cell needs to perform a function before it has had time to

repair itself, it will either be unable to perform the repair function or
perform the function incorrectly or incompletely. The result may be cells
that cannot perform their normal functions or that now are damaging to
other cells. These altered cells may be unable to reproduce themselves or
may reproduce at an uncontrolled rate. Such cells can be the underlying
causes of cancers.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION ÎÎ

ü 
  
   " 
If a cell is extensively damaged by radiation, or damaged in such a way
that reproduction is affected, the cell may die. Radiation damage to cells
may depend on how sensitive the cells are to radiation.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION Îa

üÎ  
  
   
 Don¶t
expect observable health effects.

üÎ  
  
   
 we

don¶t expect immediate observable health effects, although chances of
getting cancer might be very slightly increased.

üÎ  
   can cause observable health effects

from which body will likely recover, and 100 rem received in a short
time or over many years will increase your chances of getting cancer.

üÎ      
  will cause immediately

observable health effects and is likely to cause death.

Îu
G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION
ºë   ë 
Potential biological effects depend on how much and how fast a
radiation dose is received. Radiation doses can be grouped into two
categories,  and  dose.

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If large enough, it may result in effects which are observable within a
period of hours to weeks.
G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION Ό
Acute doses can cause a pattern of clearly identifiable symptoms
(syndromes). These conditions are referred to in general as 
§
  
. Radiation sickness symptoms are apparent
following acute doses >100 rad. Acute whole body doses of >450 rad
may result in a statistical expectation that 50% of the population
exposed will die within 60 days without medical attention.

As in most illnesses, the specific symptoms, the therapy that a doctor

might prescribe, and the prospects for recovery vary from one person to
another and are generally dependent on the age and general health of
the individual.

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 (>100 rad) is
characterized by damage to cells that divide at the most rapid pace (such
as bone marrow, the spleen and lymphatic tissue). Symptoms include
internal bleeding, fatigue, bacterial infections, and fever.




 
% ! 
 (>1000 rad) is characterized by
damage to cells that divide less rapidly (such as the linings of the
stomach and intestines). Symptoms include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,
dehydration, electrolytic imbalance, loss of digestion ability, bleeding
ulcers, and the symptoms of blood-forming organ syndrome.

 
 
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 (>5000 rad) is characterized by
damage to cells that do not reproduce such as nerve cells.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION Î

Symptoms include loss of coordination, confusion, coma, convulsions,
shock, and the symptoms of the blood forming organ and
gastrointestinal tract syndromes. Scientists now have evidence that
death under these conditions is not caused by actual radiation damage
to the nervous system, but rather from complications caused by internal
bleeding, and fluid and pressure build-up on the brain.

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a00 to 300 rad to the skin can result in the reddening of the skin
(erythema), similar to a mild sunburn and may result in hair loss due to
damage to hair follicles.

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1a5 to a00 rad to the ovaries can result in prolonged or permanent
suppression of menstruation in about fifty percent (50%) of women.

600 rad to the ovaries or testicles can result in permanent sterilization.

50 rad to the thyroid gland can result in benign (non cancerous) tumors.

As a group, the effects caused by acute doses are called
 .
Broadly speaking, this means that severity of the effect is determined by
the amount of dose received. Deterministic effects usually have some
threshold level - below which, the effect will probably not occur, but
above which the effect is expected. When the dose is above the
threshold,        
    .

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION Ή

"

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The body is better equipped to tolerate a chronic dose than an acute
dose. The body has time to repair damage because a smaller percentage
of the cells need repair at any given time. The body also has time to
replace dead or non-functioning cells with new, healthy cells.

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The biological effects of high levels of radiation exposure are fairly well
known, but the effects of low levels of radiation are more difficult to
determine because the deterministic effects described above do not
occur at these levels.
G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION η
Since deterministic effects do not generally occur with chronic dose, in
order to assess the risk of this exposure, we must look to other types of
effects.

Studies of people who have received high doses have shown a link
between radiation dose and some delayed, or   effects. These effects
include some forms of cancer and genetic effects.

The risks for these effects are not directly measurable in populations of
exposed workers, therefore the risk values at occupational levels are
î  î based on risk factors measured at high doses.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION a

To make these estimates, we must use a relationship between the
occurrence of cancer at high doses and the potential for cancer at low
doses. Since the probability for cancer at high doses increases with
increasing dose, this relationship is assumed to hold true with low doses.
This type of risk model is called  

Using this model and knowledge of high-dose cancer risks, we can

calculate the   of cancer occurrence at a given dose. In this
way, the rem can be used as a unit of    . For instance, the
relatively well known cancer risk from doses in the range of hundreds of
rem can be 'scaled down' to assess the potential risk from a dose of 100
mrem (0.1 rem).

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION aÎ

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 , Somatic effects
may be divided into two classes based on the rate at which the dose was
received.
Somatic damage from high doses of ionizing radiation is indicated by
burns and radiation sickness, with symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and
diarrhea.

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Long-term effects can include cancers such as  0
. Cells are
killed instantly if a high dose of ionizing radiation is delivered in a short
amount of time. Symptoms may appear within hours or days.

The same dose delivered over a long time will not produce the same
symptoms, because the body has time to repair some of the damage
caused during a long-term exposure. However, some cells may
experience genetic damage that causes some forms of cancer to develop
years later (this is called a latent effect).

a M    are those that occur soon after an acute

dose (typically 10 rad or greater to the whole body in a short period of
time).

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION au

One example of a prompt effect is the temporary hair loss which occurs
about three weeks after a dose of 400 rad to the scalp. New hair is
expected to grow within two months after the dose, although the color
and texture may be different.

a „ 
   are those that may occur years after radiation

doses are received. Among the delayed effects thus far observed have
been an increased potential for the development of cancer and cataracts.

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Genetic effects are abnormalities that may occur in the future
generations of exposed individuals. They have been extensively studied
in plants and animals, but risks for genetic effects in humans are seen to
be considerably smaller than the risks for somatic effects. Therefore, the
limits used to protect the exposed person from harm are equally
effective to protect future generations from harm.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION aè

Genetic damage can include mutations or broken chromosomes, the
structures in cell nuclei that house DNA, and the all the genetic
information of an organism. Many mutations, or changes in genes, are
harmful. Mutations caused by radiation are fundamentally the same as
mutations caused by any other influence.

 ë1ë1 2º

Since an embryo/fetus is especially sensitive to radiation, (embryo/fetus

cells are rapidly dividing) special considerations are given to pregnant
workers. Protection of the embryo/fetus is important because the
embryo/fetus is considered to be at the most radiosensitive stage of
human development, particularly in the first a0 weeks of pregnancy.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION a

Limits are established to protect the embryo/fetus from any potential
effects which may occur from a significant amount of radiation. This
radiation exposure may be the result of exposure to external sources of
radiation or internal sources of radioactive material.

Potential effects associated with prenatal radiation doses include

Growth retardation
Small head/brain size
Mental retardation
Childhood cancer
At present occupation dose limits, the actual probability of any of these
effects occurring in the embryo/fetus from occupational exposure of the
mother is small.
G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION a[
It is well established that high dose ionizing radiation can cause cancer.
Effect/symptoms of a high dose is shown below.

  

ü No easily detectable clinical effect in humans.
ü However, at about 15 rads there could be temporary sterility (Testis).

  Î 

ü Slight short-term reduction in blood cells.
ü Disabling sickness not common.

Î   

ü Nausea and fatigue.
ü Vomiting if dose is greater than 1a5 rads.
ü Longer-term reduction in number of some types of blood cells.
G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION a‰
  ! 

ü Nausea and vomiting on the first day of exposure.
ü Up to a two-week latent period followed by appetite loss, general
malaise, sore throat, pallor, diarrhea, and moderate emaciation.
ü Recovery in about three months unless complicated by infection or
injury.

!  " 

ü Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea in first few hours.
ü Up to a one-week latent period followed by loss of appetite, fever, and
general malaise in the second week.
ü Followed by bleeding, inflammation of mouth and throat, diarrhea,
and emaciation.

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION a·

ü Some deaths in two to six weeks.
ü Eventual death for 50% if exposure is above 450 rems.
ü Others recover in about six months.

Y " 
ü Nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea in the first few hours.
ü Followed by rapid emaciation and death in and week.
ü Eventual death of nearly 100%.

High dose could lead to death. Table below shows lethality within a4 to
48 hrs after radiation exposure without medical treatment:

G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION u


  

 
 
 


  
 


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G.K. RAMANI. CHAPTER :-6 BIOLOGICAL EFFECT OF RADIATION uÎ