UNIT 16

PROBLEM WITH
OTHER STRUCTURE
 Degree of Comparison
Degree of Comparatives
The suffix –est is used with the same words that –er used with
a) Adjective and adverbs Tall Taller The tallest
of one syllable Clear Cleared The clearest
Fast Faster The fastest
b) Adjectives that end Busy Busier The busiest
in –y (2 syllables) Pretty Prettier The prettiest
Happy Happier The happiest
c) Adjectives of two or Beautiful More beautiful The most beautiful
more syllables Expensive More expensive The most expensive
Important More important The most important
d) Adverbs that have Carefully More carefully The most carefully
the adverb suffix –ly Quickly More quickly The most quickly
Easily More easily The most easily
 Positive Comparative Superlative
Very few boys John is taller John is the
in the class are than any other tallest boy in
as tall as John. boys in the the class.
class.
No other This flower is This flower is
flower in this more beautiful the most
garden is as than any other beautiful one
beautiful as flower in this in this garden.
this one. garden.
Knowledge and ability –know and know how
Remember that know followed by a noun expresses
knowledge
S KNOW NOUN
I Know The answer
Avoid using an infinitive after know
Remember that know how followed by infinitive
expresses ability
S KNOW HOW INFINITIVE
I Know How To answer The question
TENSES
Past Perfect Tense 1. After the guest had (1) and (2) expresses
Past Now Future left, I went to bed. an activity that was
2. Before I went to completed before
bed, the guest had another activity or
X X left time in the past.

Simple Past

S + had + V3
 TENSES
Past Progressive tense 1. I was walking down
Past Now Future the street when it
began to rain
2. It began to rain while I
X was walking down the
street
3. While I was studying
Simple past in one room of our
apartment, my
S + to be (was/were) + roommate was having
Ving a party in the other
room
(1) and (2) occurred at the
same time but one action
began earlier and was in
progress when the other
action occurred
(3) sometime the past
progressive is used for
two actions are in
progress at the same time
 Difference between Adjective and Adverb
Adjectives modify nouns. By modifying, adjectives give a more detailed sense of the noun.
For example:
• "I ate a meal."
Meal is a noun. The reader does not know what kind of meal this is, leaving a lot of room
open for interpretation.
• "I ate an enormous meal."
Meal is a noun, and enormous is an adjective that modifies it. It tells us what kind of meal
the person ate. By using adjectives, the writer gives the reader a better understanding of
the noun.
Adjectives clarify the noun by answering one of the following different questions: "What
kind?" or "Which?" or "How many?" For example:
• "The tall girl is riding her bike."
Tall tells the reader which girl the writer is talking about.
• “Our old van needs to be replaced soon.”
Old tells the reader what kind of van the writer is describing.
• "Fifteen students passed the midterm exam; twelve students passed the final exam."
Fifteen and twelve both tell the reader how many students; midterm and final both tell
the reader which exam.
 Difference between Adjective and Adverb
The most common question that adverbs answer is how.
Let's look at verbs first.
• "She sang beautifully."
Beautifully is an adverb that modifies sang. It tells us how she sang.
• "The cellist played carelessly.“
Carelessly is an adverb that modifies played. It tells us how the cellist played.
Adverbs also modify adjectives
• "That woman is extremely nice."
Nice is an adjective that modifies the noun woman. Extremely is an adverb that
modifies nice; it tells us how nice she is. How nice is she? She's extremely nice.
• "It was a terribly hot afternoon."
Hot is an adjective that modifies the noun afternoon. Terribly is an adverb that
modifies the adjective hot. How hot is it? Terribly hot.
Adverb can also answer the questions when and where.
• “She arrived late.”
Late describes when she arrived.
• “They all went there for the party.”
There is where they all went to the party.
 Difference between Adjective and Adverb
Adjectives cannot modify verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
The sentence, She ate her lunch quick, does not make sense.
The correct sentence should say, She ate her lunch quickly, because the
adverb, quickly, modifies the verb, ate. How did she eat? Quickly.
She ate the quick lunch. In this case, quick modifies the noun, lunch. What kind of lunch was
it? A quick lunch.

Adverbs cannot modify nouns,

as you can see from the following incorrect sentences.
The sentence, “He is a quietly man,” does not make sense.
The correct sentence should be written as “He is a quiet man” because quiet modifies the
noun, man, not the verb is. What kind of man is he? A quiet man.
The sentence, “I have a happily dog,” does not make sense.
The correct sentence should say,” I have a happy dog” because happy modifies the noun,
dog, instead of the verb have. What kind of dog is it? A happy one.
Difference between So and So That
So is The Coordinating
Conjunction
means it can join two independent
clauses. It is used to show cause &
effect (result). For example:
• I was hungry, so I ate.
• The printer was broken, so we
couldn’t use it.
So That is the subordinate
clause
So that has a meaning similar to ‘in
order to/in order that’. It describes
the purpose of an action. It begins
a clause that is dependent on a
main clause). For example:
• The teacher spoke slowly so that
his students would understand
the lesson.
Here, his students understanding
the lesson is the purpose/aim of the
action of speaking slowly. It is not
the result. In this sentence, we don’t
know the result. We only know that
he spoke slowly for the purpose of
helping them understand.
Subjunctive
Subjunctive verb: Remember that the following verbs are used
before that and the verb word clause to express importance
Ask Propose
Demand Recommend
Desire Request
Insist Require
Prefer Suggest
urge
S V THAT S VERB
WORD
Mr. Johnson Prefers That She Speak With him
personally
Avoid using a present or past verb instead of a verb word. Avoid
using a modal before the verb word.
Note: the verb insist may be used in non-subjunctive patterns in
the past tense. For example: he insisted that I was wrong.
Subjunctive
Noun derived from Subjunctive verb:
remember that the following nouns are used in the
pattern:
Demand Recommendation
Insistence Request
Preference Requirement
Proposal suggestion
NOUN THAT S VERB
WORD
The That We Be Evaluated was
recommendation approved
Avoid using a present or past verb instead of a verb
word. Avoid using a modal before the verb word.
Subjunctive Impersonal expressions: remember that the following adjectives are
used in impersonal expressions:
Essential
Imperative
Important
necessary
IT IS ADJECTIVE INFINITIVE
It is Important To verify The data
or
IT IS ADJECTIVE THAT S VERB
WORD
It is Important That The data Be Verified
Avoid using a present verb instead of a verb word. Avoid using a modal
before the verb word
Gerund
Common Verbs followed by Gerunds
(a) I enjoy (verb) playing (gerund) Gerunds are used as the object of
tennis certain verbs. In (a), enjoy is followed
by a gerund (playing). Common verbs
that are followed by gerund are given
in the list below
Admit Delay Postpone
Anticipate Deny Practice
Appreciate Discuss Quit
Enjoy
Avoid Recommend
Finish
Complete Suggest
Keep
Consider Mind understand
Infinitive
INFINITIVES
Verb + Infinitive
a) I hope to see you again soon
b) He promised to be here by ten
c) He promised not to be late
Verb + (pro) noun + infinitive
d) Mr. Lee told me to be here at ten
o’clock
e) The police ordered the driver to stop
f) I was told to be here at ten o’clock
g) The driver was ordered to stop
i) I expected to pass the test
j) I expect Mary to pass the test
An infinitive= to + the simple form of verb
(to see, to be, to go, etc)
Some verbs are followed immediately by an
infinitive, as in (a) and (b).
Negative form: not precedes the infinitive,
as in (c).
Some verbs are followed by a (pro)noun and
then an infinitive, as in (d) and (e).
These verbs are followed immediately by an
infinitive when they are used in passive, as
in (f) and (g).
Ask, expect, would like, want and need may
or may not be followed by a (pro)noun
object.
Compare:
In (h): I think I will pass the test
In (i): I think Mary will pass the test
 Infinitive
INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE: IN ORDER TO
k) He came here in order to study English In order to is used to express purpose. It
l) He came here to study English answers the question “why”. In order is often
omitted as in (l)
m) I went to the store for some bread For can be used to express purpose, but it is a
n) I went to the store to buy some bread preposition and is followed by a noun object,
as in (m).
ADJECTIVES FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES
o) We were sorry to hear the bad news Certain adjectives can be immediately
p) I was surprised to see Tim at the meeting followed by infinitives, as in (o) and (p). in
general, these adjectives describe a person (or
persons), not a thing. Many of these
adjectives describe a person’s feeling or
attitudes
Glad to Fortunate to Anxious to
Happy to Sad to Motivated to
Pleased to Proud to Careful to
Delighted to Ashamed to Afraid to
Lucky to Ready to Certain to
 Infinitive
COMMON VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVES
Agree Consent Learn Refuse
Appear Decide Manage Seem
Arrange Demand Need Swear
Ask Deserve Offer Wait
Beg Expect Plan Want
Care Fail Pretend Would like
Claim Hope Prepare Wish
Promise
Tell someone to Permit someone to Order someone to Would like
Encourage someone to Allow someone to Force someone to someone to
Remind someone to Warn someone to Ask someone to Want someone to
Invite someone to Require someone to Expect someone to Need someone to
 Common verbs followed by either infinitives or gerunds

Some verbs can be followed by either an infinitive or a gerund, sometimes with

no difference in meaning, as in group A below, and sometimes with a difference
in meaning, as in group B below.
Group A: verb + infinitive or The verbs in group A may be followed by either
gerund with no difference in an infinitive or a gerund with little or no
meaning difference in meaning
Begin Like Can’t stand
Start Love Can’t bear
Continue Hate
a) It began to rain/ it began In (a): there is no difference between began to
raining rain and began raining
b) I started to work/ I started
working If the main verb is progressive, an infinitive
(not a gerund) is usually used, as in (c).
a) It was beginning to rain
Relative Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses. The most common relative
pronoun pronouns are who, whom, whose, which, and that.
Who people a. The lady lives next to my house
She is very kind to my sister
The lady who lives next to my house
is very kind to my sister (as the
subject)
a. She is going out with a man
He is in the army
She is going out with a man who is in
the army (as the object)
Whom People (used instead of a. She is a lady
who if it is an object : I met her at the station yesterday
me, you, him, her, us, She is a lady whom I met at the
them) station yesterday.
Whose Possessive meaning for a. He is the man
people and animals. His car was stolen
(substitute possessive He is the man whose car was stolen.
adjective: my, your, his,
her, its, our, their)
Relative Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses. The
pronoun most common relative pronouns are who, whom,
whose, which, and that.
Which Animals and things a. This is a dog.
I photographed it last
week.
This is the dog which I
photographed last week.
a. This is a painting.
I painted it last week.
This is the painting which
I painted last week.
That People, animals (rewrite from the previous
and things examples)
 Condition and unexpected result –despite and in spite of

Remember that despite and in spite of have the same

meaning. They introduce a contradiction in a sentence or
clause of cause and result
DESPITE NOUN,
Despite His denial, We knew that he
was guilty
IN SPITE OF NOUN,
In spite of his denial, We knew that he
was guilty
Avoid using of with despite. Avoid omitting of after in spite
 Conditional Sentences
Overview of Basic Verb Forms used in Conditional Sentences
SITUATION IF-CLAUSE RESULT CLAUSE EXAMPLES
True in the present Simple 1. Will + simple 1. If I have enough time, I will watch TV
/future present form later on tonight
A possible 2. If you don’t hurry, you will miss the train.
condition and its
probable result

Untrue in the Simple 1. Would + 1. If the weather wasn’t so bad, we would

present past simple form go to the park. (but the weather is bad so
we can’t go)
2. If I was the queen of England, I would
give everyone a lot of money. (but I am
not the queen)
Untrue in the past Past 1. Would have + 1. If I had had enough time, I would have
perfect past watched TV yesterday (but I didn’t have
participle enough time yesterday)
2. I would have been happy if you had
called me on my birthday (but you didn’t
call me)
 Double Comparative
CAUSE RESULT
The Comparative S V, The Comparative S V
The More You Review, The Easier The Will be
patterns
 Subject Pronoun
Example:
___ did the job.
I, he, she, we, they, who, whoever, etc., all
qualify and are, therefore, subject pronouns.
Examples:
It is he.
This is she speaking.
It is we who are responsible for the decision
to downsize.
Correct: It is I who am sorry. (I am )
Incorrect: It is I who is sorry.
Correct: It is you who are mistaken. (you are )
Incorrect: It is you who's mistaken.
Subject pronouns are used when
the pronoun is the subject of the
sentence. You can remember
subject pronouns easily by filling in
the blank subject space for a simple
sentence.
Subject pronouns are also used if
they rename the subject. They will
follow to be verbs, such as is, are,
was, were, am, will be, had been,
etc.
This rule surprises even language
watchers: when who refers to a
personal pronoun ( I, you, he, she,
we, they ), it takes the verb that
agrees with that pronoun.