Earthquake engineering is a subdivision of structural

engineering that focuses on designing structures

capable of withstanding the immense levels of stress
caused by seismic forces. Civil engineers specializing
in this field usually work in geographic areas that
frequently experience earthquakes, allowing them to
test new technologies in real-world earthquake
scenarios. As the science behind earthquake
engineering is constantly advancing, current
engineering professionals can benefit from examining
several of the innovations introduced to the industry.
LEAD-RUBBER BEARINGS
Lead-rubber bearings are comprised of a lead core set within a rubber
housing, which is then encased between two thick steel plates and fixed
at the base of a building’s foundation. The flexibility of this design aids in
deflecting seismic waves, while the plasticity of the rubber components
absorbs energy from vibrations that would otherwise cause significant
damage. Finally, the solid lead core dissipates residual energy that has
not already been absorbed or deflected by the outer layers.
STEEL PLATE SHEAR WALLS
Steel plate shear wall systems have been used to reinforce
buildings since the 1970s, particularly in Japan and North
America, and are considered a promising alternative to
conventional earthquake-resistant systems that are being used
in many high-risk seismic regions.
CONTROLLED ROCKING
Controlled rocking systems prevent damage by minimizing the
drifts that occur in a structure during an earthquake. These high-
performance systems utilize braced steel frames that have
elastic properties; this allows the steel frames to rock upon their
foundation. The elastic element creates a self-centering,
restoring force that dissipates seismic vibrations throughout the
structure and allows the frame of a structure to rock in a
controlled fashion within a gap that has been intentionally placed
in the foundation.
TUNED MASS DAMPERS
Traditional mass dampers are designed to control the movement
of high-rise buildings. To create a mass damper, civil engineers
suspend large metal pendulums attached to cables at the top of
a tall building; these pendulums act as an inertial counterweight
that keeps the building as centered as possible. These dampers
effectively lower the speed at which a building is allowed to
oscillate, as well as the total distance of each oscillation.
EARTHQUAKES
The seismic waves caused by an earthquake will make buildings sway
and oscillate in various ways depending on the frequency and direction of ground
motion, and the height and construction of the building. Seismic activity can
cause excessive oscillations of the building which may lead to structural failure.
To enhance the building's seismic performance, a proper building design is
performed engaging various seismic vibration control technologies. As mentioned
above, damping devices had been used in the aeronautics and automobile
industries long before they were standard in mitigating seismic damage to
buildings. In fact, the first specialized damping devices for earthquakes were not
developed until late in 1950.
 Earthquakes: collateral effects

Ground shaking
Shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves, especially surface
waves near the epicentre of the earthquake are responsible for the most damage
during an earthquake. The intensity of ground shaking depends on:

•conditions of the local geology influence events: solid bedrock is far less subject
to intense shaking than loose sediment;

•duration and intensity of the earthquake are subject generally to the size of the
earthquake;

•distance: the distance from the epicentre drops off so the intensity of the shaking
decreases. This depends on the type of material underlying the area. There are
however some exceptions. The 1985 Earthquake in Mexico city (magnitude 8.1)
had its epicentre 350 Km away to the south on the coast. Damage to city was
extensive as Mexico city is built on a former lake made up of soft unconsolidated
sediment (see: Liquefaction further down).
Faulting and Ground Rupture
When an earthquake event occurs, ground rupture is only where the fault zone moves.
Those constructions built adjacent to the fault will survive while structures built across
these zones will collapse.

Landslides and ground subsidence

Avalanches, landslides, slumps and rock slides are triggered by ground shaking. These
landslides are often more destructive than the earthquakes. A residential area in Alaska
(Turnagain Heights) was destroyed by a shock induced landslide as well as are in
downtown Anchorage.

Damage to man-made structures

Damage to man-made structures, such as roads, bridges, dams and buildings from
ground motion depends on the type of construction:

•concrete and masonry structures are brittle and thus more susceptible to damage and
collapse;
•damage to wood and steel structures is far less because of its flexibility.
 Image: San Fernando earthquake

This aerial photograph of the San Fernando earthquake in Feb 1971 shows
the extensive damage to the freeway bridge as the Earth's crust shook.
"Earthquakes don't kill people, buildings do". This quote is
from Seismologists who believe that human construction and buildings
crashing down during earthquakes are the cause of most deaths.
 Image: Seismic shaking and related dangers

This photo shows the extreme danger presented by seismic shaking to

people in the open around buildings and on the street. Complete facades of
buildings, electric signage and windows crash and collapse onto the street
below. It is known to be far safer to shelter under robust furniture than to
run out onto the street.
Fires

Fires, often associated with broken electrical and gas lines, is one of the common
side effects of earthquakes. Gas is set free as gas lines are broken and a spark will
start bringing "inferno". To complicate things water lines are broken and so there is no
water to extinguish the fire. The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 caused 90% of
damage by fire.

Image: Fires started by broken gas lines

Flooding
Flooding can come from many sources such as broken water main pipes,
dams that fail due to the earthquake and earthquake-generated tsunamis.
When an earthquake breaks a dam or levee along a river, the water from the
river or the reservoir floods the area, damaging buildings and maybe sweeping
away or drowning people. Small tsunamis, called seiches occur on lakes
shaken by earthquakes and are usually just a few feet high. These small
tsunamis are capable of destroying houses and uprooting trees. Also,
earthquakes can alter the course of a river and can even cause it to flow in the
opposite direction for a short time (this happened to the Mississippi River in
the late 1800's).
Tsunamis

For sure, one of the most dangerous effects of an earthquake is a Tsunami.

Tsunamis are giant waves that can cause floods and in some cases may reach up
to 100 feet in height. These deadly waves strike a great distance from the
epicentre. Tsunamis often result from sub-sea faulting of ocean floor sending
seismic shocks through the water and creating large waves of low amplitude but
of long period, moving at 500-700 mph.

Image: Tsunami risk by country assessed on historical

data