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One class of flow maldistribution, which is a result of geometrically nonideal fluid flow
passages or nonideal exchanger inlet/outlet header/tank/manifold/nozzle design. Geometry-
induced flow maldistribution is related to mechanical design-induced flow nonuniformities
such as (1) entry conditions, (2) bypass and leakage streams, (3) fabrication tolerances, (4)
shallow bundle effects, and (5) general equipment and exchanger system effects
CAN OCCUR IN
1. one dimension across the free-flow area (perpendicular to the flow direction) as in
single-pass counterflow and parallelflow exchangers,
2. two or three dimensions as in single- and multipass crossflow and other exchangers.
The following additional idealizations are introduced to quantify the influence of flow
nonuniformity caused by gross flow maldistribution on each subexchanger and the
exchanger as a whole.
1. Total heat transfer rate in a real heat exchanger is equal to the sum of the
heat transfer rates that would be exchanged in N subexchangers connected in
parallel for an idealized N-step inlet velocity distribution function.
2. The sum of the heat capacity rates of the respective fluid streams for all
subexchangers is equal to the total heat capacity rates of the fluids for the
actual maldistributed heat exchanger.
1.1 Counterflow and Parallelflow Exchangers
TEMPERATURE EFFECTIVENESS
TEMPERATURE EFFECTIVENESS
TOTAL HEAT EXCHANGER
Unmixed–Unmixed Crossflow Exchangers
When flow maldistribution is present on only one fluid side, the following general
conclusions have been obtained.
1. For flow maldistribution on the Cmax fluid side, the exchanger thermal
performance deterioration factor "* approaches a single value of 0.06 for all C* < 1
when NTU approaches zero. The performance deterioration factor decreases as NTU
increases. For a balanced heat exchanger (C* ¼ 1), the exchanger thermal
performance deterioration factor Increases continually with NTU.
2. For flow maldistribution on the Cmin fluid side, the thermal performance
deterioration factor first increases and then decreases as NTU increases.
1. For Cs=Ct small, say Cs=Ct ¼ 0:1, the performance loss is negligible for large
flow nonuniformities for NTUs < 2.
2. For Cs=Ct large, say Cs=Ct >1, a loss can be noticed but diminishes for NTUs >2.
a two-passage
a three-passage model an N-passage mode
model
2.1 Models of Flow Nonuniformity
Two-Passage Model HEAT EXCHANGER EFFECTIVENESS
PRESSURE DROP
2. Flow maldistribution in the PHEs due to the manifold system (U- or Z-flow) increases with increasing flow rate,
increasing the number of plates in a given pass and decreasing the liquid viscosity.
3. In a U-flow manifold system, the maximum flow occurs through the first port, and in the Z-flow manifold system
through the last port. Neither arrangement provides uniform flow through the PHE or lateral branches. However,
flatter (relatively more uniform) flow distribution is obtained with the U-flow manifold system than with the Z-flow
system (see Fig. 12.7e).
4. To minimize flow maldistribution in a PHE, the flow area of the inlet manifold (area of the actual or simulated
pipe before lateral branches) should be larger than the flow area of the lateral branches (heat exchanger core). The
larger the port diameter, the more uniform flow through the heat exchanger core. Alternatively, flow maldistribution
in a PHE plate pack (core) increases as the fraction of the total pressure drop in the manifold becomes significant.
5. The flow area of a combining-flow manifold in Fig. 12.12b (the outlet manifold/ pipe in Fig. 12.7a and b) should
be larger than that for the dividing-flow manifold in Fig. 12.12a (the inlet manifold/pipe in Fig. 12.7a and b) for a
more uniform flow distribution through the core in the absence of heat transfer within the core. If there is heat
transfer in lateral branches (core), the flow areas should be adjusted first for the density change and then the flow
area of the combining manifold should be made larger than that calculated previously.
6. Flow reversal is more likely to occur in a Z-flow system, which is subjected to poor flow distribution.
7. Based on the limited tests, a 2-pass 2-pass Z-flow arrangement can be treated as if each pass were in a separate
exchanger.
B. OPERATING CONDITION–INDUCED FLOW
MALDISTRIBUTION
Operating conditions (temperature level, temperature differences, multiphase flow conditions,
etc.) inevitably influence thermophysical properties (viscosity, density, quality) and/or process
characteristics (such as the onset of oscillations) of the exchanger fluids, which in turn may
cause various flow maldistributions, both steady and transient in nature.
Viscosity-Induced Flow
Maldistribution
1. Viscosity-Induced Flow Maldistribution
Viscosity-induced flow instability and maldistribution are results of large changes in fluid
viscosity within the exchanger as a result of different heat transfer rates in different tubes
(flow passages)
3. fluid deterioration
4. enhanced fouling
5. mechanical and tube vibration problems due to flow instabilities, wear, fretting, erosion, and
corrosion and mechanical failure
No generalized recommendations can be made for preventing the negative consequences of flow
maldistribution. Most problems must be solved by intelligent designs and diagnosis on
an individual basis
A few broad guidelines for shell-and-tube heat exchangers are:
1. Gross flow maldistribution may be induced at inlet nozzles on the shell side. Placing
an impingement perforated baffle about halfway to the tubesheet will break up the
inlet jet stream
2. The shell inlet and exit baffle spaces are the regions prone to gross flow
maldistribution. An appropriate design of the baffle geometry (e.g., the use of double
segmental or disk-and-doughnut baffles) may reduce this maldistribution.
(1) uniform distribution of the fluid stream within a heat exchanger core, and
(2) minimal pressure drop within the header/manifold, since in general we do not get any heat
transfer for that pressure drop expenditure.
1. Oblique-Flow Headers
In an oblique-flow header, the fluid inlet flow direction with respect to the core face is at an angle
different from 908 (i.e., normal flow, as in a normal-flow header). A special class of oblique-flow
headers has an inlet flow direction parallel to the core face area. The main feature of this type of
header is the minimization of header volume and flow separation.
2. NORMAL FLOW HEADERS
Normal-flow headers are characterized as having the flow direction perpendicular to the heat
transfer core. The design of a normal-flow header follows the design of a diffuser with a large
increase in the free-flow area from the inlet pipe to the heat exchanger core face. This type of
header design is qualitatively discussed by Wilson (1966). The pressure drop, flow separation, and
recirculation (if any) depend on the diffuser geometry, which includes the type (two dimensional
vs. three dimensional, rectangular vs. conical, etc.), included angle, aspect ratio (diffuser throat to
length ratio), and flow type. For a heat exchanger, the diffuser (inlet normal header) is followed
bytheheat exchangercorehaving finitepressure drop. Hence,the designinformation for a diffuser
having no downstream flow resistance will be conservative for a heat exchanger.
3. MANIFOLDS MAJOR TYPES OF MANIFOLDS
Modeling a manifold requires determination of both axial and lateral velocity and static pressure
distributions. Available solutions of the manifold flow models may be either analytical or numerical
The key problem in analytical modeling is the difficulty in identifying a relevant streamline on
which to calculate energy and pressure drop losses and apply the Bernoulli equation. The state-of-
the-art design procedures utilize commercial and/or proprietary CFD codes. Still, simple analytical
modeling has merit for assessment purposes