Frederic H.

Martini
Fundamentals of
Anatomy & Physiology
SIXTH EDITION

Chapter 2, part 1
The Chemical Level of
Organization

PowerPoint® Lecture Slide Presentation prepared by

Dr. Kathleen A. Ireland, Biology Instructor, Seabury Hall, Maui, Hawaii
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Learning Objectives
• Describe an atom and compare the ways atoms
combine to form molecules.
• Distinguish among the types of chemical reactions
that are important to physiology.
• Describe the role of enzymes in metabolism.
• Distinguish between organic and inorganic
compounds.
• Explain the importance of water, pH and buffers to
living systems.
• Discuss the structures and functions of
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and
high energy compounds.
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
SECTION 2-1
Atoms, Molecules and Bonds

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Atoms are the smallest stable units of matter

• Subatomic particles
• Protons = positive charge; weight of
approximately 1 Dalton
• Neutrons = no charge; weight similar to protons
• Electrons = negative charge; weigh 1/1836th
Dalton
• Protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus;
electrons occupy electron cloud
• Atomic number = proton number; atomic mass =
protons and neutrons
• Isotopes are elements with similar numbers of
protons but different numbers of neutron
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 2.1 Hydrogen Atoms

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.1
Electrons occupy a series of energy levels or
electron shells.

• The outermost electron shell determines the

reactivity of the element.

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.2 Atoms and Energy Levels

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.2
Atoms combine through chemical reactions

• Molecule = a chemical structure consisting of

molecules held together by covalent bonds
• Compound = a chemical substance composed of
atoms of two or more elements
• There are three types of bond: Ionic, covalent,
and hydrogen
• Ionic = attraction between positive cations and
negative anions

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.3 Ionic Bonding

PLAY Animation: Formation of Ions

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.3
Covalent bonds exist between atoms that share
electrons to form a molecule
• Double covalent bond
• Non-polar covalent bond
• Polar covalent bond

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.4a, b
Hydrogen bonds are weak forces that affect the
shape and properties of compounds

• Polar covalent bonds that occur when hydrogen

covalently bonds with another element

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.5 Polar Covalent Bonds and the
Structure of Water

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6 Hydrogen Bonds

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.6
Matter and chemical notation

• Matter can exist as a solid, liquid or gas

• Depends on the interaction of the component
atoms or molecules
• Molecular weight is the sum of the atomic
weights of the component atoms
• Chemical notation
• Short-hand that describes chemical
compounds and reactions
• See table 2.2 for examples of chemical notation
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
SECTION 2-2
Chemical Reactions

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

A chemical reaction occurs when reactants
combine to generate one or more products

• All chemical reactions in the body constitutes

metabolism
• Metabolism provides for the capture, storage and
release of energy

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Basic energy concepts

• Work = movement of an object or change in its

physical structure
• Energy = the capacity to perform work
• Kinetic energy is energy of motion
• Potential energy is stored energy resulting from
position or structure
• Conversions are not 100% efficient, resulting
in release of heat

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Metabolism

• Types of reaction
• Decomposition
• Synthesis
• Exchange
• Metabolism is the sum of all reactions
• Through catabolism cells gain energy (break
down of complex molecules)
• Anabolism uses energy (synthesis of new
molecules)
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Reversible reactions

• All reactions are theoretically reversible

• At equilibrium the rates of two opposing
reactions are in balance
• Anabolism = catabolism

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Enzymes, energy and chemical reactions

• Activation energy is the amount of energy needed

to begin a reaction
• Enzymes are catalysts
• Reduce energy of activation without being
permanently changed or used up
• Promote chemical reactions

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.7 Enzymes and Activation Energy

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.7
SECTION 2-3
Inorganic Compounds

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Nutrients and Metabolites

• Nutrients are essential chemical compounds

obtained from the diet
• Metabolites are molecules synthesized or broken
down inside the body
• These can be classified as organic or inorganic
compounds
• Organic compounds have carbon and hydrogen
as their primary structural component
• Inorganic compounds are not primarily carbon
and hydrogen

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Water and its properties

• Water is the most important constituent of the

body
• Solution is a uniform mixture of two or more
substances
• Solvent is the medium in which molecules of
solute are dispersed
• Water is the solvent in aqueous solutions

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.8 Water molecules and solutions

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.8
Electrolytes undergo ionization

• Compounds that interact readily with water are

hydrophilic
• Compounds that do not interact with water are
hydrophobic

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen
ions solution

• Neutral
• Acidic
• Basic

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Acids and Bases

• Acids release hydrogen ions into solution

• Bases remove hydrogen ions from solution
• Strong acids and strong bases ionize
completely
• Weak acids and weak bases do not ionize

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 2.9 pH and Hydrogen Ion Concentration

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 2.9
Salts and buffers

• Salt = an electrolyte whose cation is not hydrogen

and whose anion is not hydroxide
• Buffers remove or replace hydrogen ions in
solution
• Buffer systems maintain the pH of body fluids

Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings