Mechanics of Materials: Transformations of Stress and Strain

Seventh Edition
CHAPTER MECHANICS OF
MATERIALS
7 Ferdinand P. Beer
E. Russell Johnston, Jr.
John T. DeWolf Transformations of
David F. Mazurek
Stress and Strain
Lecture Notes:
Brock E. Barry
U.S. Military Academy
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MECHANICS OF MATERIALS Beer • Johnston • DeWolf • Mazurek
Contents
Introduction
Transformation of Plane Stress
Principal Stresses
Maximum Shearing Stress
Concept Application 7.1
Sample Problem 7.1
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress
Sample Problem 7.2
General State of Stress
Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Three-Dimensional Analysis of Stress
Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress
Fracture Criteria for Brittle Materials Under Plane Stress
Stresses in Thin-Walled Pressure Vessels
Transformation of Plane Strain
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Strain
Three-Dimensional Analysis of Strain
Measurements of Strain: Strain Rosette
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Introduction
• The most general state of stress at a point may
be represented by 6 components,
 x , y , z normal stresses
 xy ,  yz ,  zx shearing stresses
(Note :  xy   yx ,  yz   zy ,  zx   xz )
• Same state of stress is represented by a

different set of components if axes are rotated.
• The first part of the chapter is concerned with

how the components of stress are transformed
under a rotation of the coordinate axes. The
second part of the chapter is devoted to a
similar analysis of the transformation of the
components of strain.
Fig. 7.1 General state of stress at a
point: (a) referred to {xyz}, (b)
referred to {x’y’z’}.
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Introduction
• Plane Stress - state of stress in which two faces of
the cubic element are free of stress. For the
illustrated example, the state of stress is defined by
 x ,  y ,  xy and  z   zx   zy  0.
Fig. 7.2 Non-zero stress components
for state of plane stress.
• State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate subjected

to forces acting in the midplane of the plate.
Fig. 7.3 Example of plane stress: thin

plate subjected to only in-plane loads.
• State of plane stress also occurs on the free surface

of a structural element or machine component, i.e.,
at any point of the surface not subjected to an
Fig. 7.4 Example of plane stress: free external force.
surface of a structural component.
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Transformation of Plane Stress

• Consider the conditions for equilibrium of a
prismatic element with faces perpendicular to
the x, y, and x’ axes.
 Fx  0   xA   x  A cos  cos   xy  A cos  sin 
  y  A sin   sin    xy  A sin   cos
 Fy   0   xyA   x  A cos  sin    xy  A cos  cos
  y  A sin   cos   xy  A sin   sin 
• The equations may be rewritten to yield

 x  y  x  y
 x   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
 x  y  x  y
 y   cos 2   xy sin 2
2 2
 x  y
Fig. 7.6 Stress transformation  xy    sin 2   xy cos 2
equations are determined by 2
considering an arbitrary prismatic
wedge element. (a) Geometry of the
element. (b) Free-body diagram.
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Principal Stresses
• The previous equations are combined to
yield parametric equations for a circle,
  x   ave  2   x2y  R 2
where
2
 x  y  x  y  2
 ave  R      xy
2  2 
Fig. 7.7 Circular relationship of
transformed stresses. • Principal stresses occur on the principal
planes of stress with zero shearing stresses.
2
 x  y  x  y  2
 max,min       xy
2  2 
2 xy
tan 2 p 
 x  y
Fig. 7.9 Principal stresses. Note : defines two angles separated by 90o
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Maximum Shearing Stress

Maximum shearing stress occurs for  x   ave
2
 x  y  2
 max  R      xy
 2 
 x  y
tan 2 s  
2 xy
Note : defines two angles separated by 90o and

Fig. 7.7 Circular relationship of
transformed stresses. offset from  p by 45o
 x  y
    ave 
2
Fig. 7.10 Maximum shearing stress.
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SOLUTION:
• Find the element orientation for the principal
stresses from
2 xy
tan 2 p 
 x  y
• Determine the principal stresses from
2
Fig. 7.11a Plane stress element. x  y  x   y  2
 max,min       xy
2  2 
For the state of plane stress shown, • Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
determine (a) the principal planes,
2
(b) the principal stresses, (c) the   x   y  2
 max      xy
maximum shearing stress and the  2 
corresponding normal stress.
x  y

 
2
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SOLUTION:
• Find the element orientation for the principal
stresses from
2 xy 2  40 
tan 2 p    1.333
 x  y 50    10 
2 p  53.1, 233.1
Fig. 7.11a Plane stress element.
 p  26.6, 116 .6
 x  50 MPa  xy  40 MPa
 x  10 MPa • Determine the principal stresses from
2
x  y  x   y  2
 max,min       xy
2  2 
 20   30 2   40 2
 max  70 MPa
 min  30 MPa
Fig. 7.11b Plane stress element
oriented in principal directions.
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• Calculate the maximum shearing stress with
2
 x   y  2
 max      xy
 2 
  30 2   40 2
Fig. 7.11a Plane stress element.
 max  50 MPa
 x  50 MPa  xy  40 MPa  s   p  45
 x  10 MPa  s  18.4, 71.6
• The corresponding normal stress is

x  y 50  10
    ave  
2 2
   20 MPa
Fig. 7.11d Plane stress element

showing maximum shear orientation.
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Seventh
Sample Problem 7.1

SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent force-couple
system at the center of the transverse
section passing through H.
• Evaluate the normal and shearing
stresses at H.
• Determine the principal planes and
calculate the principal stresses.
A single horizontal force P of with a
magnitude of 150 lb is applied to end D
of lever ABD. Determine (a) the normal
and shearing stresses on an element at
point H having sides parallel to the x
and y axes, (b) the principal planes and
principal stresses at the point H.

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Sample Problem 7.1

SOLUTION:
• Determine an equivalent force-couple
system at the center of the transverse
section passing through H.
P  150 lb
T  150 lb 18 in   2.7 kip  in
M x  150 lb 10 in   1.5 kip  in
Fig. 1 Equivalent force-couple system
acting on transverse section containing • Evaluate the normal and shearing
point H. stresses at H.
y 
Mc

1.5 kip  in  0.6 in 
I 1   0.6 in  4
4
 xy  
Tc

 2.7 kip  in  0.6 in 
J 1   0.6 in  4
2
 x  0  y  8.84 ksi  xy  7.96 ksi

Fig. 2 General plane stress element (showing
positive directions).
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Sample Problem 7.1

• Determine the principal planes and
calculate the principal stresses.
2 xy 2 7.96
tan 2 p    1.8
 x  y 0  8.84
2 p  61.0,119 
 p  30.5, 59.5
Fig. 3 Stress element at point H.
2
x  y  x   y  2
 max,min       xy
2  2 
2
0  8.84  0  8.84 
   7.96 
2
  
2  2 
 max  13.52 ksi
 min  4.68 ksi
Fig. 4 Stress element at point H

oriented in principal directions.
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• With the physical significance of Mohr’s
circle for plane stress established, it may be
applied with simple geometric considerations.
Critical values are estimated graphically or
calculated.
• For a known state of plane stress  x , y , xy
plot the points X and Y and construct the
circle centered at C.
2
 x  y  x  y  2
 ave  R      xy
2  2 
• The principal stresses are obtained at A and B.

 max,min   ave  R
2 xy
tan 2 p 
 x  y
Fig. 7.12 (a) Plane stress element and the
orientation of principal planes. (b) The direction of rotation of Ox to Oa is
corresponding Mohr‘s circle.
the same as CX to CA.
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• With Mohr’s circle uniquely defined, the state
of stress at other axes orientations may be
depicted.
• For the state of stress at an angle  with

respect to the xy axes, construct a new
diameter X’Y’ at an angle 2 with respect to
XY.
• Normal and shear stresses are obtained

from the coordinates X’Y’.
Fig. 7.13 (a) Stress element referenced to xy

axes, transformed to obtain components
referenced to x’y’ axes. (b) Corresponding
Mohr's circle.
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• Mohr’s circle for centric axial loading:
P P
 x  ,  y   xy  0  '  R   max 
A 2A
Fig. 7.17 (a) Member under centric axial load. (b) Mohr’s circle. (c) Element showing planes of
maximum shearing stress.
• Mohr’s circle for torsional loading:
Tc Tc
 x   y  0  xy   max,min   R  
J J
Fig. 7.18 (a) Member under torsional load. (b) Mohr’s circle. (c) Element showing orientation of
principal stresses.

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Fig. 7.16 (a) Plane stress element.

(b) Corresponding Mohr's circle.
SOLUTION:
For the state of plane stress
considered in Concept Application • Construction of Mohr’s circle
7.1, (a) construct Mohr’s circle, (b)
 ave 
x  y

 50    10  20 MPa
determine the principal stresses, (c) 2 2
determine the maximum shearing CF  50  20  30 MPa FX  40 MPa
stress and the corresponding normal
R  CX   30 2   40 2  50 MPa
stress.
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• Principal planes and stresses
 max  OA  OC  CA  20  50
 max  70 MPa
 min  OB  OC  BC  20  50
 min  30 MPa
FX 40
Fig. 7.16 (b) Mohr’s circle showing face X and Y. tan 2 p  
CP 30
2 p  53.1
 p  26.6
Fig. 7.16 (c) Stress element orientations for

principal and maximum shear orientations.
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Fig. 7.16 (c) Stress element orientations for Fig. 7.16 (d) Mohr’s circle used to determine
principal and maximum shear orientations. principal and maximum shearing stresses.
• Maximum shear stress
 s   p  45  max  R     ave

 s  71.6  max  50 MPa    20 MPa

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Sample Problem 7.2
For the state of stress shown,

determine (a) the principal
planes and the principal Fig. 1 Mohr’s circle for given stress state.
stresses, and (b) the stress
components exerted on the SOLUTION:
element obtained by rotating the • Construct Mohr’s circle
given element counterclockwise x  y 100  60
through 30º.  ave    80 MPa
2 2
R  CF  2   FX  2   20 2   48 2  52 MPa
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Sample Problem 7.2
Fig. 1 Mohr’s circle for given stress state. Fig. 2 Orientation of principal stress element.
• Principal planes and stresses

XF 48  max  OA  OC  CA  max  OA  OC  BC
tan 2 p    2.4
CF 20  80  52  80  52
2 p  67.4
 max  132 MPa  min  28 MPa
 p  33.7 clockwise

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Sample Problem 7.2
Fig. 4 Stress components obtained by rotating

Fig. 3 Mohr’s circle analysis for element rotation of original element 30° counterclockwise.
30° counterclockwise.
  180  60  67.4  52.6
• Stress components after rotation by 30 o
 x  OK  OC  KC  80  52 cos 52.6
Points X’ and Y’ on Mohr’s circle that  y  OL  OC  CL  80  52 cos 52.6
correspond to stress components on the
 xy  KX   52 sin 52.6
rotated element are obtained by
2  60
rotating XY counterclockwise through  x  48.4 MPa
 y  111 .6 MPa
 xy  41.3 MPa

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General State of Stress

• Consider the general 3D state of stress at a point and
the transformation of stress from element rotation
• State of stress at Q defined by:  x , y , z , xy , yz , zx
• Consider tetrahedron with face perpendicular to the

line QN with direction cosines: x ,  y , z
Fig. 7.19 Stress tetrahedron at
point Q with three faces parallel to • The requirement  Fn  0 leads to,
the coordinate planes.
 n   x 2x   y 2y   z 2z
 2 xy x  y  2 yz  y z  2 zx z x
• Form of equation guarantees that an element

orientation can be found such that
 n   a 2a   bb2   c c2
These are the principal axes and principal planes
Fig. 7.21 General stress element and the normal stresses are the principal stresses.
oriented to principal axes.

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Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Three-

Dimensional Analysis of Stress
Fig. 7.22 Stress element rotated Fig. 7.23 Mohr’s circles for
about c axis. general state of stress.
• Transformation of stress for an element • The three circles represent the

rotated around a principal axis may be normal and shearing stresses for
represented by Mohr’s circle. rotation around each principal axis.
• Points A, B, and C represent the • Radius of the largest circle yields the
principal stresses on the principal maximum shearing stress.
planes (shearing stress is zero) 1
 max   max   min
2
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• In the case of plane stress, the axis
perpendicular to the plane of stress is a
principal axis (shearing stress equal to zero).
• If the points A and B (representing the
principal planes) are on opposite sides of
the origin, then
Fig. 7.24 Three-dimensional Mohr’s circles a) the corresponding principal stresses
for state of plane stress where a > 0 > b.
are the maximum and minimum
normal stresses for the element
b) the maximum shearing stress for the
element is equal to the maximum “in-
plane” shearing stress
c) planes of maximum shearing stress
Fig. 7.25a In-plane maximum shearing stress are at 45o to the principal planes.
for an element having a principal axis aligned with
the z-axis, 45º clockwise from principal axis a.
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• If A and B are on the same side of the
origin (i.e., have the same sign), then
a) the circle defining maxminand

max for the element is not the circle
corresponding to transformations
within the plane of stress
Fig. 7.26 Three-dimensional Mohr’s circles for
state of plane stress where a >  b > 0. b) maximum shearing stress for the
element is equal to half of the
maximum stress
c) planes of maximum shearing stress are

at 45 degrees to the plane of stress
Fig. 7.27a Out-of-plane of maximum shearing

stress for plane stress element, 45º
counterclockwise from principal axis a.
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• Failure of a machine component
subjected to uniaxial stress is directly
predicted from an equivalent tensile test
Fig. 7.29 Structural element under
uniaxial stress. • Failure of a machine component
subjected to plane stress cannot be
directly predicted from the uniaxial state
of stress in a tensile test specimen
• It is convenient to determine the
principal stresses and to base the failure
criteria on the corresponding biaxial
stress state
• Failure criterion are based on the
mechanism of failure. Allows
comparison of the failure conditions for
Fig. 7.30 Structural element in a state of a uniaxial stress test and biaxial
plane stress. (a) Stress element referred to
coordinate axes. (b) Stress element referred component loading
to principal axes.

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Maximum shearing stress criteria:
Structural component is safe as long as the
maximum shearing stress is less than the
maximum shearing stress in a tensile test
specimen at yield, i.e.,

 max   Y  Y
2
For a and b with the same sign,

a  
Fig. 7.31 Tresca’s hexagon for maximum-
 max  or b  Y
shearing-stress criterion.
2 2 2
For a and b with opposite signs,
 a   b Y
 max  
2 2

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Maximum distortion energy criteria:
distortion energy per unit volume is less
than that occurring in a tensile test specimen
at yield.
ud  uY
1 2
6G

 a   a b   b2 
1
6G
 
 Y2   Y  0  02 
 a2   a b   b2   Y2
Fig. 7.32 Von Mises surface based on
maximum-distortion-energy criterion.

Seventh
Fracture Criteria for Brittle Materials Under Plane Stress
Brittle materials fail suddenly through rupture

or fracture in a tensile test. The failure
condition is characterized by the ultimate
strength U.
Maximum normal stress criteria:

maximum normal stress is less than the
Fig. 7.34 Coulomb’s surface for ultimate strength of a tensile test specimen.
maximum-normal-stress criterion.
 a  U
 b  U

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• Cylindrical vessel with principal stresses
1 = hoop stress
2 = longitudinal stress
Fig. 7.40 Pressurized cylindrical vessel.
• Hoop stress:
 Fz  0   1 2t x   p 2r x 
pr
1 
t
Fig. 7.41 Free-body diagram to determine
hoop stress in a cylindrical pressure vessel. • Longitudinal stress:
 Fx  0   2  2 rt   p  r  
2
pr
2 
2t
 1  2 2
Fig. 7.42 Free-body diagram to determine
longitudinal stress.
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• Points A and B correspond to hoop stress, 1,
and longitudinal stress, 2
• Maximum in-plane shearing stress:

1 pr
 max(in  plane)   2 
2 4t
• Maximum out-of-plane shearing stress

corresponds to a 45o rotation of the plane
Fig. 7.43 Mohr’s circle for element of stress element around a longitudinal axis
cylindrical pressure vessel.
pr
 max   2 
2t

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• Spherical pressure vessel:

pr
1   2 
2t
Fig. 7.44 Fig. 7.45 Free-

Pressurized body diagram to • Mohr’s circle for in-plane
determine
spherical vessel.
spherical pressure
transformations reduces to a point
vessel stress.    1   2  constant
 max(in -plane)  0
• Maximum out-of-plane shearing

stress
pr
 max  12  1 
4t
Fig. 7.46 Mohr’s circle for element of

spherical pressure vessel.

Seventh

• Plane strain - deformations of the material
take place in parallel planes and are the
same in each of those planes.
• Plane strain occurs in a plate subjected

along its edges to a uniformly distributed
load and restrained from expanding or
contracting laterally by smooth, rigid and
Fig. 7.47 Plane strain example: laterally fixed supports
restrained by fixed supports.
components of strain :
 x  y  xy  z   zx   zy  0
• Example: Consider a long bar subjected
to uniformly distributed transverse loads.
State of plane stress exists in any
transverse section not located too close to
Fig. 7.48 Plane strain example: bar of
infinite length in z direction.
the ends of the bar.
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• State of strain at the point Q results in
different strain components with respect
to the xy and x’y’ reference frames.
     x cos2    y sin 2    xy sin  cos
 OB    45  12  x   y   xy 
Fig. 7.49 Plane strain element:

 xy  2 OB   x   y 
undeformed and deformed.
• Applying the trigonometric relations

used for the transformation of stress,
x  y x   y  xy
 x   cos 2  sin 2
2 2 2
x   y x   y  xy
 y   cos 2  sin 2
2 2 2
 xy x  y  xy
Fig. 7.50 Transformation of plane strain  sin 2  cos 2
element in undeformed and deformed 2 2 2
orientations.

Seventh
Mohr’s Circle for Plane Strain

• The equations for the transformation of
plane strain are of the same form as the
equations for the transformation of plane
stress - Mohr’s circle techniques apply.
• Abscissa for the center C and radius R ,

2 2
x   y   x   y    xy 
Fig. 7.53 Mohr’s circle for plane strain.  ave  R      
2  2   2 
• Principal axes of strain and principal strains,

 xy
tan 2 p 
x   y
 max   ave  R  min   ave  R
• Maximum in-plane shearing strain,

Fig. 7.54a Mohr’s circle for plane strain,
showing principal strains and maximum in-
 max  2 R   x   y 2   xy2
plane shearing strain.
Seventh

• Previously demonstrated that three principal
axes exist such that the perpendicular
element faces are free of shearing stresses.
• By Hooke’s Law, it follows that the

shearing strains are zero as well and that
the principal planes of stress are also the
Fig. 7.58 Strain element having one axis
coincident with a principal strain axis. principal planes of strain.
• Rotation about the principal axes may be

represented by Mohr’s circles.
Fig. 7.59 Mohr’s circle for three-

dimensional analysis of strain.

Seventh

• For the case of plane strain where the x and y
axes are in the plane of strain,
- the z axis is also a principal axis
- the corresponding principal normal strain
is represented by the point Z = 0 or the
origin.
• If the points A and B lie on opposite sides
of the origin, the maximum shearing strain
is the maximum in-plane shearing strain, D
and E.
• If the points A and B lie on the same side of

the origin, the maximum shearing strain is
out of the plane of strain and is represented
by the points D’ and E’.
Fig. 7.60 Possible configurations of Mohr’s
circle for plane strain. (a) Principal strains
having mixed signs. (b) Principal strains
having positive signs

Seventh

• Consider the case of plane stress,
 x   a  y  b  z  0
• Corresponding normal strains,

 
a  a  b
E E
 
b   a  b
E E
 
c    a   b      a  b 
E 1 
Fig. 7.61 Mohr’s circle strain analysis for
plane stress.
• Strain perpendicular to the plane of stress
is not zero.
• If B is located between A and C on the

Mohr-circle diagram, the maximum
shearing strain is equal to the diameter CA.

Seventh
Measurements of Strain: Strain Rosette
• Strain gages indicate normal strain through

changes in resistance.
Fig. 7.63 Electrical strain gage.
• With a 45o rosette, x and y are measured

directly. xy is obtained indirectly with,
 xy  2 OB   x   y 
Fig. 7.64 Strain rosette that measures

• Normal and shearing strains may be
normal strains in direction of x, y, and obtained from normal strains in any three
bisector OB.
directions,
1   x cos2 1   y sin 2 1   xy sin 1 cos1
 2   x cos 2  2   y sin 2  2   xy sin  2 cos 2
 3   x cos 2  3   y sin 2  3   xy sin  3 cos3

Fig. 7.65 Generalized strain gage rosette
arrangement.

Mechanics of Materials: Transformations of Stress and Strain

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Seventh Edition

Copyright © 2015 McGraw-Hill Education. Permission required for reproduction or display.

• Same state of stress is represented by a

• The first part of the chapter is concerned with

• State of plane stress occurs in a thin plate subjected

Fig. 7.3 Example of plane stress: thin

• State of plane stress also occurs on the free surface

Transformation of Plane Stress

• The equations may be rewritten to yield

Maximum Shearing Stress

Note : defines two angles separated by 90o and

Fig. 7.10 Maximum shearing stress.

Concept Application 7.1

Concept Application 7.1

Concept Application 7.1

• The corresponding normal stress is

Fig. 7.11d Plane stress element

Sample Problem 7.1

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Sample Problem 7.1

 x  0  y  8.84 ksi  xy  7.96 ksi

Sample Problem 7.1

Fig. 4 Stress element at point H

Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

• The principal stresses are obtained at A and B.

Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

• For the state of stress at an angle  with

• Normal and shear stresses are obtained

Fig. 7.13 (a) Stress element referenced to xy

Mohr’s Circle for Plane Stress

• Mohr’s circle for torsional loading:

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Concept Application 7.2

Fig. 7.16 (a) Plane stress element.

Concept Application 7.2

Fig. 7.16 (c) Stress element orientations for

Concept Application 7.2

• Maximum shear stress

 s   p  45  max  R     ave

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Sample Problem 7.2

For the state of stress shown,

Sample Problem 7.2

• Principal planes and stresses

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Sample Problem 7.2

Fig. 4 Stress components obtained by rotating

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General State of Stress

• State of stress at Q defined by:  x , y , z , xy , yz , zx

• Consider tetrahedron with face perpendicular to the

• Form of equation guarantees that an element

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Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Three-

• Transformation of stress for an element • The three circles represent the

Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Three-

Application of Mohr’s Circle to the Three-

a) the circle defining maxminand

c) planes of maximum shearing stress are

Fig. 7.27a Out-of-plane of maximum shearing

Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress

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Yield Criteria for Ductile Materials Under Plane Stress