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ALLOYS
INTRODUCTION
In dentistry, metals represent one of the three
major classes of materials used for the reconstruction
of damaged or missing oral tissues. Although metals
are readily distinguished from ceramics and polymers.
The wide varieties of complex dental alloy
compositions consist of the following:
Dental amalgams containing the major elements
mercury, silver, tin, and copper.
Noble metal alloys in which the major elements
are some combination of gold, palladium, silver and
important secondary elements including copper,
platinum, tin, indium and gallium.
Base metal alloys with a major element of nickel,
cobalt, iron or titanium and many secondary
elements that are found in the alloy compositions.
HISTORY OF METALS IN DENTISTRY
Dentistry as a specialty is believed
to have begun about 3000 BC. Gold bands
and wires were used by the Phoenicians
after 2500 BC.
Modern dentistry began in 1728
when Fauchard published different
treatment modalities describing many types
of dental restorations, including a method
for the construction of artificial dentures
made from ivory. Gold shell crowns were
described by Mouton in 1746 but they were
not patented until in 1873 by Beers. In
1885 Logan patented porcelain fused to
platinum post replacing the unsatisfactory
wooden post previously used to build up
intra-radicular areas of teeth. In 1907 a
detached post crown was introduced which
was more easily adjustable.
Year Event
1907 Introduction of Lost-Wax Technique
1933 Replacement of Co-Cr for Gold in
Removable Partial Dentures
1950 Development of Resin Veneers for Gold Alloys
1959 Introduction of the Porcelain Fused-to-Metal
Technique
1968 Palladium-Based Alloys as Alternatives to Gold
Alloy
1971 Nickel-Based Alloys as Alternatives to Gold Alloys
1980s Introduction of All-Ceramic Technologies
1999 Gold Alloys as Alternatives to Palladium-Based
Alloys
1971 – THE GOLD STANDARD
The United States abandoned the gold
standard in 1971. Gold then became a commodity
freely traded on the open markets. As a result, the
price of gold increased steadily over the next nine
years. In response to the increasing price of gold,
new dental alloys were introduced through the
following changes:
In some alloys, gold was replaced with
palladium.
In other alloys, palladium eliminated gold
entirely.
Base metal alloys with nickel as the
major element eliminated the exclusive need for
noble metals.
KEY TERMS
Grain–A microscopic single crystal in the microstructure
of a metallic material.
Metal – An element whose atomic structure readily
loses electrons to form positively charged ions, and
which exhibits metallic bonding (through a spatial
extension of valence electrons), opacity, good light
reflectance from a polished surface and high electrical
and thermal conductivity.
Noble metal – which are highly resistant to oxidation
and dissolution in inorganic acids. Gold and platinum
group metals (Platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium and osmium).
Base metal – A metal that readily oxidizes or dissolves
to release ions.
Alloy – A crystalline substance with metallic
properties that is composed of two or more
chemical elements, at least one of which is
metal.
Solid solution (metallic) – A solid crystalline
phase containing two or more elements, at least
one of which is a metal, that are intimately
combined at the atomic level.
Liquidus temperature – Temperature at which an
alloy begins to freeze on cooling or at which the
metal is completely molten on heating.
Solidus temperature – Temperature at which an
alloy becomes solid on cooling or at which the
metal begins to melt on heating.
PERIODIC TABLE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
AND EFFECT OF
NOBLE METALS AND
BASE METALS ON DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS
NOBLE METALS
The noble metals have been the basis of inlays,
crowns and bridges because of their resistance to corrosion
in the oral cavity.
Gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium,
iridium, osmium, and silver are the eight noble metals.
However, in the oral cavity, silver is more reactive and
therefore is not considered as a noble metal.
Of the eight noble metals, four are of major
importance in dental casting alloys, i.e., gold, platinum,
palladium and silver. All four have a face-centered cubic
crystal structure and all are white coloured except for gold.
GOLD
Imparts hardness,
strength and rigidity to
the alloy . It has a high
melting point of 1495°C
, boiling point of 2900
°C , density of 8.85
gm/cm3 and CTE
13.810-6/oC
NICKEL
Cobalt and nickel are
interchangeable.It decreases
strength, hardness, modulus
of elasticity and fusion
temperature. It increased
ductility. Bio-incompatibility
due to nickel, which is the
most common metal to
cause Contact Dermatitis. It
has a melting point of
1453°C , boiling point of
2730 °C , density of 8.9
gm/cm3 and CTE 13.310-
6/oC
CHROMIUM
Its passivating effect
ensures corrosion resistance.
The chromium content is
directly proportional to tarnish
and corrosion resistance. It
reduces the melting point. Along
with other elements, it also acts
in solid solution hardening.
Thirty percent chromium is
considered the upper limit for
attaining maximum mechanical
properties. It has melting point
of 1875°C , boiling point of
2665 °C , density of 7.19
gm/cm3 and CTE 6.210-6/ oC
COPPER
It is the principal hardener. It
reduces the melting point and
density of gold. If present in
sufficient quantity, it gives the
alloy a reddish colour. It also
helps to age harden gold alloys.
In greater amounts it reduces
resistance to tarnish and
corrosion of the gold alloy.
Therefore, the maximum content
should NOT exceed 16%. It has
melting point of 1083°C , boiling
point of 2595 °C , density of
8.96 gm/cm³ and CTE 16.5
10-6/°C .
ZINC
It acts as a scavenger for
oxygen. Without zinc the
silver in the alloy causes
absorption of oxygen
during melting. Later
during solidification, the
oxygen is rejected
producing gas porosities
in the casting. It has a
melting point of 420°C ,
boiling point of 906 °C ,
density of 7.133gm/cm3
and CTE 39.710-6/oC
MOLYBDENUM OR
TUNGSTEN
It is added to
compensate for the
decreased coefficient
of thermal expansion
that results when the
alloy is made silver
free. The elimination of
silver reduces the
tendency for green
stain at the margin of
the metal-porcelain
interface.
MANGANESE AND SILICON
Primarily oxide scavengers to prevent oxidation of
other elements during melting. They are also hardeners.
MANGANESE has melting point of 650°C , boiling point
of 1107 °C , density of 1.74 gm/cm3 and CTE 25.2 10-
6/oC , where as SILICON has melting point of 1410°C ,
It is a deoxidizer
and hardener, but
reduces ductility.
CLASSIFICATION OF DENTAL
CASTING ALLOYS
1. ALLOY TYPES BY FUNCTIONS:
In 1927, the Bureau of Standard established gold casting alloys, type
I to type IV according to dental function with hardness increasing from
type I to type IV.
Type I (Soft):
It is used for fabrication of small inlays, class III and class V
restorations which are not subjected to great stress . These alloys
are easily burnishable.
Type -II (Medium):
These are used for fabrication of inlays subjected to moderate stress,
thick 3/4 crowns, abutments, pontics, full crowns and soft saddles.
Type I and II are usually referred to as inlay gold.
Type -III (Hard):
It is used for fabrication of inlays subjected to high stress, thin 3/4
crowns, thin cast backing abutments, pontics, full crowns, denture
bases and short span FPDs . Type III alloys can be age hardened.
Type-IV (Extra hard):
It is used for fabrication of inlays subjected to high stress, denture
bases, bars and clasps, partial denture frameworks and long span
FPDs. These alloys can be age hardened by heat treatment.
Type III and Type IV gold alloys are generally called "Crown
and Bridge Alloys", although type IV alloy is used for high
stress applications such as RPD framework.
Later, in 1960, metal ceramic alloys were introduced and
removable partial denture alloys were added in this
classification.
1. Cobalt-chromium alloy
2. Nickel-chromium alloy
3. Cobalt-chromium-nickel alloy
4. Silver-palladium alloy
5. Aluminum -bronze alloy
3.ALLOY TYPE BY NOBILITY
High noble, noble, and predominantly base metal.
Type I (Soft):-
COMPOSITION
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn&Ga
83% 10% 6% - 0.5% balance
Type II (Medium):-
These are used for conventional inlay or onlay restorations
subject to moderate stress, thick three quarter crowns, pontics and
full crowns. These are harder and have good strength.
Ductility is almost same as that of type I alloy however, yield
strength is higher. Since burnishability is a function of ductility and
yield strength, greater effort is required to deform the alloy. They
are less yellow in color due to less gold.
Properties:
1. Hardness VHN (90-120)
2. Tensile Strength 345 MPa
3. Yield Strength 300 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 1.37%
5. Elongation 40.5% - William O Brien
10% - Anusavice
Composition:
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn&Ga
77% 14% 7% - 1% balance
Type III (Hard):
Properties:
1. Hardness(VHN) 120 – 150
2. Tensile Strength 360 MPa
3. Yield Strength 331 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 1.42%
5. Elongation or ductility 39.4% - William O Brien
5% - Anusavice
Composition:
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn&Ga
75% 11% 9% - 3.5% balance
Type IV (Extra Hard):
Properties:
1. Hardness VHN (150-200)
2. Tensile Strength 462 MPa
3. Yield Strength 703 MPa
4. Linear Casting Shrinkage 2.30%
5. Elongation or ductility 17% - William O Brien
3% - Anusavice
Composition:
Au Ag Cu Pt Pd Zn&Ga
56% 25% 14% - 4% balance
HEAT TREATMENT OF GOLD ALLOYS: