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CHAPTER 13

SOLUTIONS

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13.1 Antifreeze in Frogs
• Unlike most cold-blooded animals, wood frogs have the ability to survive very
cold temperatures by hibernating in a suspended “frozen” state.
– In its partially frozen state, a wood frog has no heartbeat, no blood
circulation, no breath, and no brain activity.
– Their vital functions can be revived within
one to two hours of thawing.
• Most cold-blooded animals cannot survive freezing temperatures because the
water within their cells freezes and frozen water (ice) expands, destroying or
causing irreversible damage to cells.
• Wood frogs survive freezing temperatures
because of their physiological ability to “flood
their blood” with a large amount of glucose
(sugar water solution) prior to going into
hibernation.
• The high concentration of glucose in the
bloodstream prevents the blood from
freezing because concentrated solutions
have a lower freezing point than the
corresponding pure liquid.

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13.2 Solutions
• Solutions are homogeneous mixtures.
– Remember, a mixture is made up of two or more different chemical
substances.
– A solution may be composed of different phases of substances.
• Example(s): a solid and a liquid, a gas and a liquid, a gas with
another gas
• Solutions have a solute component and a solvent component.
– The solute is the component that is being dissolved (mixed) into the
solvent.
• Usually the major component of a solution is referred to as the solvent,
and the minor component is called the solute.
• Solution formation is the result of the interaction of the
intermolecular forces of solute and solvent particles.
– Saying: “Likes dissolve in likes,” or polar with polar and nonpolar
with nonpolar substances readily form solutions.
– Nature has a tendency toward spontaneous mixing.
• Generally, uniform mixing is more energetically favorable.
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Common Types of Solutions

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Solubility
• When one substance (solute) dissolves in another (solvent), it is
said to be soluble.
– Salt is soluble in water.
– Bromine is soluble in methylene chloride.

• When one substance does not dissolve in another, it is said to be


insoluble.
– Oil is insoluble in water.

• The solubility of one substance in another depends on the


following:
– Nature’s tendency toward mixing
– The types of intermolecular attractive forces

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A solution can form between the solute and
the solvent because of two main factors:

a. Intermolecular forces
(the solute and solvent should have
similar intermolecular forces)

b. Increased entropy upon mixing

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A. Intermolecular forces
Energy changes in the formation of most solutions involve
differences in attractive forces between the particles.

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Will It Dissolve? “Likes Dissolve in Likes”
• A chemical will dissolve in a solvent if it has a
structure similar to that of the solvent.
– Compatible intermolecular forces

• Polar molecules and ionic compounds will be


more soluble in polar solvents.

• Nonpolar molecules will be more soluble in


nonpolar solvents.

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B. Nature’s Tendency Toward Mixing:
Entropy
• The mixing of physical
systems leans towards a
lower potential energy.
– However, the formation of a
solution does not necessarily
lower the potential energy of
the system.
• When two ideal gases are
put into the same container,
they spontaneously mix,
even if the difference in
attractive forces is negligible.

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Nature’s Tendency Toward Mixing: Entropy
• The gases mix because the
energy of the system is
lowered through the release
of entropy.
– Entropy is the measure of
energy dispersal throughout
the system.
• Energy has a spontaneous
drive to spread out over as
large a volume as it is
allowed.
– As each gas expands to fill the
container, it spreads its energy
out and lowers its entropy.

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Solubility
• The maximum amount of solute that can be
dissolved in a given amount of solvent is called
the solubility.

• There usually is a limit to the solubility of one


substance in another.
– Gases are always soluble in each other.
– Two liquids that are mutually soluble are said to be
miscible.
• Alcohol and water are miscible.
• Oil and water are immiscible.

• The solubility of one substance in another varies


with temperature and pressure.
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13.3 Energetics of Solution Formation:
The Enthalpy of Solution
• To make a solution, you need to do the following:

1.Overcome all attractions between the solute particles;


therefore, ΔHsolute is endothermic.

2.Overcome some attractions between solvent molecules;


therefore, ΔHsolvent is endothermic.

3.Form new attractions between solute particles and solvent


molecules; therefore, ΔHmix is exothermic.

• The overall ΔH for making a solution depends on the


relative sizes of the ΔH for these three processes.
ΔHsoln = ΔHsolute + ΔHsolvent + ΔHmix
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Heat of Solution
• When some compounds, such as NaOH,
dissolve in water, a lot of heat is released.
– The container gets hot.
• The dissolving process is exothermic.

• When other compounds, such as NH4NO3,


dissolve in water, heat is absorbed from the
surroundings.
– The container gets cold.
• The dissolving process is endothermic.

• Why is this?
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Relative Interactions and Solution
Formation

• When the solute-to-solvent attractions are weaker than the sum of the
solute-to-solute and solvent-to-solvent attractions, the solution will
form only if the energy difference is small enough to be overcome by
the increase in entropy from mixing.

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Solution Process
Step 1: Separating the solute into its constituent particles

Step 2: Separating the solvent particles from each other to make room
for the solute particles

Step 3: Mixing the solute particles with the solvent particles

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Energetics of Solution Formation:
Exothermic

If the total energy cost for


breaking attractions between
particles in the pure solute
and pure solvent is less
than the energy released in
making the new attractions
between the solute and
solvent, the overall process
will be exothermic.

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Energetics of Solution Formation:
Endothermic

If the total energy cost for


breaking attractions between
particles in the pure solute
and pure solvent is greater
than the energy released in
making the new attractions
between the solute and
solvent, the overall process
will be endothermic.

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Heats of Hydration
• For aqueous solutions of ionic compounds, the energy
added to overcome the attractions between water
molecules and the energy released in forming
attractions between the water molecules and ions are
combined into a term called the heat of hydration.
– Attractive forces between ions = lattice energy
• ΔHsolute = –ΔHlattice energy
– Attractive forces in water = H bonds
– Attractive forces between ion and water = ion–dipole
– ΔHhydration = heat released when 1 mol of gaseous ions
dissolves in water = ΔHsolvent + ΔHmix

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Heats of Solution for Ionic Compounds
• For an aqueous solution of an ionic compound, the ΔHsolution is
the difference between the heat of hydration and the lattice
energy.
ΔHsolution = ΔHsolute + ΔHsolvent + ΔHmix

ΔHsolution = –ΔHlattice energy + ΔHsolvent + ΔHmix

ΔHsolution = ΔHhydration – ΔHlattice energy

ΔHsolution = –ΔHlattice energy + ΔHhydration

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Ion–Dipole Interactions:
Ionic Compounds and Polar Solvents
• When ions dissolve in water, they become hydrated.
– Each ion is surrounded by water molecules.
• The formation of these ion–dipole attractions causes the heat of
hydration to be very exothermic.

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13.4 Solution Equilibrium:
Solute Dissolving into the Solvent
• Shortly after some solute is dissolved, solute particles can start to
recombine to reform solute molecules.
– The rate of dissolution is much greater than the rate of deposition, and
the solute continues to dissolve.
• Eventually, the rate of
dissolution = the rate
of deposition.
– The solution is
saturated with solute
and no more solute
will dissolve.

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Solubility Limit
• A solution that has the solute and solvent in dynamic equilibrium
is said to be saturated.
– If you add more solute, it will not dissolve.
– The saturation concentration depends on the temperature and
pressure of gases.
• A solution that has less solute than saturation is said to be
unsaturated.
– More solute will dissolve at this temperature.
• A solution that has more solute than saturation is said to be
supersaturated.

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Effect of Temperature on the Solubility of
Solids in Water
• Solubility is generally given
in grams of solute that will
dissolve in 100 g of water.
• For most solids, the
solubility of the solid
increases as the
temperature increases.
– When ΔHsolution is
endothermic
• Solubility curves can be
used to predict whether a
solution with a particular
amount of solute dissolved in
water is saturated (on the
line), unsaturated (below the
line), or supersaturated
(above the line).
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Effect of Temperature on Solubility of Gases
in Water
• Gases generally have lower
solubility in water than ionic or
polar covalent solids because
most are nonpolar molecules.
– Usually, gases with high solubility
are actually reacting with water.

• For all gases, the solubility of the


gas decreases as the
temperature increases.
– The ΔHsolution is exothermic
because you do not need to
overcome solute–solute
attractions.

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Effect of Pressure on Solubility of Gases
in Water: Henry’s Law
• The larger the partial pressure of a gas in contact with a
liquid, the more soluble the gas is in the liquid.

• The solubility of a gas (Sgas) is directly proportional to its


partial pressure, (Pgas) at that temperature.
Sgas = kHPgas

– kH is called the Henry’s


law constant.
– Each gas has it own kH
constant.
• kH for CO2 at 25 °C
is 3.4 x 10–2 M/atm

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Henry’s Law
• The solubility of a
gas (Sgas) is directly
proportional to its
partial pressure,
(Pgas).
Sgas = kHPgas

• kH is called the
Henry’s law
constant.

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