Course contents

 How PV works & the components

 The benefits of solar electricity
 Is solar installation suitable for the property
 How to make the most of the energy
 Cost savings and maintenance
 Selling your own generated electricity
 Free solar schemes
 Planning permission
 How to install a system
 Roof fixings and considerations
 Cable requirements
 Safety procedures
 Calculating how many panels are required
 Testing and inspection
 Commissioning
 Servicing & maintenance
 FAQ’S

Course written by Keith Taylor

 There are 3 main types.

Monocrystalline
 Made up from 1 type of crystal

Polycrystalline
 Made up of more than 1 type

Amorphous

What’s the difference?

 A Monocrystalline Solar Panel is one of 3 common solar
panels manufactured today.
 They are the most efficient and the most expensive.
 These panels are made of a large single crystal (cut from
ingots).
 They perform better than its counterparts in low light
conditions, such as cloudy days, but not by much.
 When there is low light, there is low energy to be captured.
 15 – 21% efficient.
 Generally black in colour
 Polycrystalline or Multicrystalline Silicon Cells:
Made from cells cut from an ingot of melted and
recrystallized silicon.

 In the manufacturing process, molten silicon is cast into

ingots of polycrystalline silicon, these ingots are then saw-cut
into very thin wafers and assembled into complete cells.

 Multicrystalline cells are cheaper to produce than

Monocrystalline ones, due to the simpler manufacturing
process. However, they tend to be slightly less efficient, with
average efficiencies of around 12%-16%. They have a
speckled crystal reflective appearance, and again need to be
mounted in a rigid frame
 Amorphous cells are manufactured by placing a thin film of
amorphous (non crystalline) silicon onto a wide choice of
surfaces. These are the least efficient and least expensive to
produce of the three types. Due to the amorphous nature of
the thin layer, it is flexible, and if manufactured on a flexible
surface, the whole solar panel can be flexible.
 One characteristic of amorphous solar cells is that their power
output reduces over time, particularly during the first few
months, after which time they are basically stable.
 The quoted output of an amorphous panel should be that
produced after this stabilisation.
A Voltage exits if there is a
difference in the amount of
charge between any two
points. Voltage is the electric
potential energy per unit of
charge, measured in joules
per coulomb (= volts).
However it is the difference in
the voltage quantity, which is
physically meaningful.
Conditions must be met
before any charges \ electric
current will flow.
 Ohms Law
It is useful at this stage to remind ourselves about the relationship between Volts (V),
Amps (I) and Resistance (R). This can be best explained by using the Ohms law
triangle

Ohms law states that if you have two of the values you can always find the third. In
order to see this we can use the following example.

Let us say that we have a circuit where we know the current is

20A and we have a resistance of 1.5 Ohms.
V
To apply Ohms law we need to cover up the value
that you are looking for and use the resulting formula
to find the value. Here we need to find the voltage and I R
have covered up the V in the triangle, this leaves us
with I * R as a formula, we can then say:
V = I X R which gives us the sum V = 20 X 1.5 = 30V
This method can be repeated to find any value if we have the other two
 W

V I
 Power Triangle
 The same method can be applied when we
need to calculate the power in a circuit but we
use a slightly different triangle that contains
the values Watts (W), Amps (I) and Volts (V).
 As with Ohms law we need to cover up the
value that we wish to find and we will be left
with a formula to apply to find the missing
value, in this example we are going to want
to find the voltage (V) when we have the
wattage (230W) and the current (7.93 A)
The difference between AC and DC current
The difference between AC and DC is that AC is an alternating current
(the amount of electrons) that flows in both directions and DC is direct
current that flows in only one direction; the product that is flowing being
electrons.
AC power is what fuels our homes. The wires outside of our house are
connected to AC generators. DC is found commonly in batteries and
importantly for our purposes, solar photovoltaic cells.
Both AC and DC employ magnets to repel electrons. Electrons are
negatively charged particles that are one of 3 components that make up
an atom. Negative charges will repel negative charges and positive
charges will repel positive charges, so one only needs to introduce a
negatively charged item next to electrons to force them to move in the
opposite direction.
 Likewise, you can attract electrons by introducing
something that is positively charged into their
environment drawing the electrons to it. This property of
electrons is what allows for AC power to work; that is, they
switch directions constantly. The picture above is a
demonstration of AC power at work.
 DC power was invented by Thomas Edison and first used
to power our homes in the late 1800′s. Its main drawback
being that in order to receive DC power from a generating
station, your home had to be located within a one mile
radius of the station. DC power degrades as it moves away
from its generating source; the further away, the less
power. This is an important fact to remember when
considering the position of inverters in relation to
photovoltaic modules
 To produce more power cells can be wired
together.

 When cells are connected in series the

voltages add and the current remains the
same as in one cell.

 When cells are connected in parallel the

individual currents add and the voltage
remains the same as in a single cell.
 The current and power output is greatly affected by the irradiance
level but the voltage is only marginally affected as shown by the
following IV curves for various solar irradiance levels.

Temperature Response
Solar cells are also affected by a change in temperature. An increase in
temperature causes a decrease in voltage and power and an insignificant
increase in current. For crystalline cells the voltage is changed by an
average of -0.5% per deg C change from 25°C.
 When selecting a Module type for installation it is
important that the modules selected have the relevant type
test approval depending on the type of module to be used:
 BS EN 61215:2005 “Crystalline silicon terrestrial
photovoltaic (PV) modules – Design qualification and type
approval” or
 BS EN 61646:1997 "Thin film terrestrial photovoltaic (PV)
modules – Design qualification and type approval"

 (standards are currently being developed for glass/glass

modules)
 Type testing involves the manufacturers sending a module
to an approved test house and they will apply certain tests
to verify the modules resistance to external influences
(weather, impact etc) and they will measure the modules
performance under standard test conditions (STC) of 1000
Wm2 at 25°C.
 In the UK, when wanting to claim the feed in tariff for
systems less than 50kWp, as well as ensuring that the
modules meet one of the above type test standards it must
be ensured that the manufacturing process can make sure
that each module can meet these standards, this is called
“Factory production control” (FPC). All modules that have
MCS approval must have had a factory inspection against a
recognised FPC standard, this will help to ensure that
every module that is installed under the FiT scheme has
met minimum performance standards.

 A module is an environmentally and structurally protected

unit consisting of solar cells wired together. The cells are
normally wired in series to create a higher voltage and
occasionally wired in parallel to increase the current.
 Modules can be of any size but due to its large size are
usually limited to 300 Watts (>2m2). A typical module is 36
cells wired in series framed in aluminium and covered with
glass.

 This produces an output of 125 watts (17.3v and 7.23 amps).

This type of module is frequently used to charge 12v
batteries. Some modules are sized to charge 24v or 48v
battery banks and some modules made for grid tie systems
have voltages as high as possible to minimize voltage drop.
 All modules have a nameplate on the back showing its rated
output in standard test conditions (stc).

 STC is when 1000W/m2 of irradiation is exposed to the

module at a temperature of 25°C.

 This allows modules to be compared together but is not to be

confused with the expected output of the modules which is
normally lower due to system losses and less than ideal
weather conditions.
A 1kWp grid connected PV system will achieve approximately 850kWh
(SAP 2009) of energy over 1 year average across the UK (regional
variations).

The 1kWp PV array will require approximately 9-12m2 of roof or

exposed area; this is dependant of the type of module and cell
construction to be used.

We also have to take into consideration the type and output of the
inverter to be used. Sizing the array and inverter are very important as
having an undersized inverter could cause installation failure and in
the worse case the inverter may break down and cause a fire.
Note the most southerly
part of England in red is
actually 1300

Variations in solar
radiation across the UK
(figures are average
kWh/m2 per year

1300
 The array itself should be installed pointing to
true or grid south not magnetic south and angled
at 30˚to 40˚ to horizontal (in UK) to achieve
optimal performance. It can be tilted more or less
to maximize production in summer or winter.
 Quite often this angle is controlled by the slope
of the roof and the aesthetics. Most customers
are unhappy with panels standing up off the roof
and this can also cause problems with wind
loading and planning permission.
 Example 1:

 In the ideal world you would find a roof

facing due south at an inclination of 35
degrees. As long as there are no shading
effects a 2kWp array should produce
1700kWh per year (2 x 850kWh as per SAP).
 Example 2:

 In the real world you may find that the only

available roof space is facing east. Assuming
the same array and inclination the array
would only produce (1700kWh x 79%) = 1343
kWh. A system loss of 21% and remember the
initial outlay of money is exactly the same.
 Example 3:

 On a bad day you may find that the only

available roof space is north facing with an
inclination of 60 degrees. A 2kWp array
would then only produce (1700kWh x 37%) =
629 kWh a loss of 63%.
 Example 4:
 If you wish to produce a specific output it can be
determined as in the following example.
 A 1200kWh annual output is desired for an array mounted
on a SE facing roof with an inclination of 45 degrees. The
desired output is then divided by the % of loss caused by
orientation and inclination (8% or 0.92) and then that
number is then divided by 850kWh to find the kWp of the
array:
◦ (1200kWh/0.92) x(1kWp/ 850kWh) = 1.5345 kWp.

 The number of modules used can then be found by

dividing the array size by the module size. In this example
let’s assume that the module size is 180Wp this would
give you 15345Wp/180Wp = 8.525 modules. Thus to gain
the output desired 9 modules would be needed.
 SAP calculations are used to provide an estimate of the
annual yield of a PV system using standard data. Whilst in
some cases this may not be the most accurate the MCS
scheme requires that all installers use this method
therefore allowing the consumer to compare standard
calculations across all quotes that they may receive

 For SAP calculations, the energy produced per year depends

on the installed peak power (kWp) of the PV module (the
peak power corresponds to the rate of electricity generation
in bright sunlight, formally defined as the output of the
module under radiation of 1 kW/m² at 25°C). PV modules
are available in a range of types and some produce more
electricity per square metre than others (the range for
currently available types is from about 30 to 125 Watts
peak per m²), and the peak power depends on the type of
module as well as its effective area.
 In the UK climate, an installation with 1 kWp typically
produces about 850 kWh of electricity per year (at
favourable orientation and not over shaded). At times
of high solar radiation the PV array may generate
more electricity than the instantaneous electricity
demand within the dwelling.
 The procedure for PV is as follows.
◦ 1) Establish the installed peak power of the PV unit (kWp).
◦ 2) The electricity produced by the PV module in kWh/year is
◦ 0.8 X kWp X S X Zpv = Total kWh output per year (given
average irradiation)
 where S is the annual solar radiation from Table H2
(depending on orientation and pitch),
 Where Zpv is the over shading factor from Table H4
pg34/35
 Shading
 The potential for any PV system to be shaded has to be
carefully assessed as any amount of shading can have a
serious effect on the overall output of the system.

 Even shading of one module or even a single cell, can

affect the output of the whole array as this places an
increased resistance in the circuit therefore making it
harder for the electrons to flow, in very extreme conditions
this can lead to the overheating of cells and modules and
result in premature module failure.

 This has to be considered when calculating the overall

output and the following factors from table H4 of SAP
2009 should be used.
 If there are two PV strings, e.g. at different tilt
or orientation, apply the previous equation to
each string and complete the calculation for
each one independently of the other and then
sum the annual electricity generation.
 An inverter converts a DC (direct current) into a usable AC (alternating
current). There are several types of outputs possible from an inverter.
Square wave, Modified square wave and true sine wave are available but
the true sine wave inverter is the only one that is allowed to be utility
interactive. The modified square wave inverter is commonly used due to
its lower cost in off grid applications.

 The power from the array converted by the inverter is then connected via
isolators into the consumer unit via an MCB (miniature circuit breaker).

 Deciding on the type of inverter is down to the installation and the

installer. The inverter must be sized not only for the maximum
continuous output but also the range of DC voltages and currents from
the array. Cost and efficiency are also major factors in choosing an
inverter. In the UK an inverter must meet the standards set in ER G83/1
and ER G59/1. Some of these operating limits are shown on the next
slide.
 G83/1 Limits
 Limits for operating voltage or operating frequency

 230V + 14.7%/-10% (207 – 264V) and 50Hz =1%/-6% (47 –

50.5 Hz)
 Anti –islanding/ loss of mains protection
 Minimum reconnection time of 3 minutes after supply is
restored
 Maximum trip time of 5s for PV systems or 0.5 seconds
if the inverter cannot withstand being re-energized from a
source that is 180 degrees out of phase.
 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)
 DC current injection max. 20mA
 A waveform matched to
An unusable DC waveform supply, synchronised to a
usable waveform back to
grid.

From this. To this.

 The sizing of the array for mains connected PV systems is relatively
simple due to the fact that it is connected in parallel with the utility. This
allows the system to be of any size because the loads will always be
supplied no matter what the output of the array is. This means the array
size is only limited by the space available, the requirements needed to
obtain market incentives, and of course the client‟s budget.

 When we select an inverter we must take account of the size of the array
and the energy level requirements. Over sizing the inverter will increase
installation costs and the inverter will not be used efficiently. Inverter
sizing should always be done alongside manufacturer‟s guidance and
most manufacturers have “online” or downloadable sizing programs that
are very effective. When we don‟t have the manufacturer‟s data we
should size an inverter typically to be 80% of the PEAK POWER (Wp) of
the PV array. We undersize the inverter in the UK due to the relatively
low solar radiation levels and expected losses such as soiling and
voltage drop. As an example a 1kWp grid connected system generating
around 800kWh a year will require an 800W inverter.
 The output of the PV system should be estimated using the
Governments standard assessment procedure for energy rating
of buildings (SAP 2009). For PV systems Appendix M is to be
used taking into account orientation, pitch and shading. Various
programs are available using this procedure and others to
simplify your life. SAP is the most commonly used and is
accepted by MCS but this does not mean that it gives the most
accurate results.

 The inverter should be installed on a solid vertical surface with
adequate surrounding space for ventilation as the inverter will
get warm during operation. This may require strong board to be
installed. Some inverters are appropriately rated for outdoor
installation and then AC cabling has to be routed into the
building. For inverters only rated for indoor use the DC cabling
has to be routed into the building. The DC and AC isolators
associated with inverter should be easily accessible from the
inverter position.
 Inverter location must be acceptable with
regards to:
◦ Weight bearing capacity of support
◦ IP rating of inverter
◦ Access (maintenance and testing)
◦ Ventilation
◦ Any displays / indicators clearly visible
◦ Live wiring precautions are to be followed if
connecting up the inverter necessitates working
around live DC connections.
 AC system to be installed and tested to BS
7671:2008.
 Normally all grid connected inverters have a circuit that uses
electronics to change the output of the array so that input of the
inverter is continuously operating at the maximum power point
even when temperature and irradiance are changing. Due to this
the voltage at the input of the inverter will be lower than what
would be normally expected. This voltage is approximately 80%
of Voc.
 Efficiency, Longevity and Size.
 Most grid controlled inverters are rated at 90% to 98%
efficiency over the majority of the operating range. The efficiency
of the inverter drops drastically below 25% of the maximum
input.
 The warranties on inverters range from 1 year to 20 years due
to the different technologies used and production techniques.
The most common is 5-10 years.
 Inverters come in many sizes. From a small one of a few watts
for solar lighting to a few megawatts for utility generation.
 All systems installed in the UK under 16A per
phase must conform to G83 in respect of the
requirement to disconnect form the grid,
most inverters available are tested to achieve
the requirements set out in G83.
 However great care must be taken to ensure
that the inverter selected for the job, has got
the correct certification to G83 as not all
inverters are designed to meet this
requirement.
 When you are considering installing a PV installation on a roof,
you will have to understand that the connections and cabling are
not going to be the usual PVC/PVC twin and CPC cable used for
domestic internal wiring. The PV wiring does have to be durable
and protected against voltage constraints, mechanical damage,
movement, wind, rain and solar radiation. (This is not an
exhaustive list). Therefore maximum values need to be assessed.

 To safely assess and size the cables we have to look at

conditions that need to be satisfied.

VOLTAGE and CURRENT.

 The values originate from two key module ratings which is the
open circuit voltage (Voc) and the short circuit current (Isc). The
manufacturer's instructions for PV modules will give you
standard test conditions (STC) that apply to that specific module.
Below is a multiplication that needs to be used when sizing
cables.
 Monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon
modules:
 DC main cables (to and from the whole array)
should be rated as a minimum at:
 Voltage: Voc (STC) x M x 1.15 (M = the
number of series connected modules)
 Current: Isc (STC) x N x 1.25 (N = the
number of parallel connected strings)
 STC=Standard test conditions.
Top: PV-Male cable
MC3 Cable &
coupler
Connectors
Bottom: PV-Female
cable coupler

Type 3 MC Branch Plug

MC4 connectors
 Essential Information
 DC Cable Installation- General Guidelines
 Cable should always be double insulated and polarized.
 DC Connectors should always be used
 Cables and connectors will be expected to last for up to 25 years
 Cable or fuses should never be disconnected when under load.
 Cable from the solar PV modules should follow the shortest route to
the array connection boxes.
 All DC cable should be clearly identifiable
 Cables should be laid in parallel and loops should be avoided - except
where they enter a building
 Cables should never be laid in a hazardous space
 Cables should never be in contact with sharp edges
 Cables should never be installed near lightning conductors.
 Cables should always be tested for polarity in accordance with
specified regulations.
 Care must be taken when connecting modules as they will generate if
there is light. (correct PPE is essential)
 Voltage drop must be calculated to avoid any
under sizing of the PV cables which would
have a deleterious effect due to overheating
and break down of the insulation. There
follows a table with typical resistances of
different size cables
2.5mm 0.0074
4mm 0.0046
Conductor cross sectional area (mm2) 6mm 0.0031
Resistance in Ohms per metre
10mm 0.0018
16mm 0.0012
25mm 0.00073
35mm 0.00049
 Example:-
 A 4mm2 cable, 100m long, carrying a current
of 20A.
 The voltage drop = 20A x 0.0046 = 0.092V
per metre.
 For a cable length of 100m the volt drop =
9.2V.
 A <1% voltage drop is recommended from
the inverter to the consumers unit and <3%
voltage drop between the array and the
inverter.
 Due to PV arrays being constructed of metal components and the
structure being of metal, there is a possibility of lightning
strikes. The Structure therefore needs to be safe guarded against
these occurrences and earthing needs to be in place to carry any
voltage disturbances that may occur. The two main areas that
need to be considered for lightening and earthing protection
are:-
 The PV Array
 The Inverter

 Reasoning behind earthing the Array is that ordinary persons

within the property could touch the array either by climbing on
the roof system or through an access window fitted in to the roof
system such as a Velux window. The earthing system employed
can also act to provide a degree of protection against lightening
surges, even though it is generally considered in the UK that the
risk is very low
 The Inverter would be earthed under normal
installation practices through the wiring system
employing a C.P.C .

 As can be seen in the following DTI earthing decision

tree the array frame for most installations in the UK
can be left floating as long as class II modules,
cables, connectors, enclosures and a isolating
transformer is used between the DC and AC sides of
the inverter.

 Lightning protection is not required in UK unless a

greater than normal risk of a direct strike is present
i.e. if it is the highest structure in the area or covers a
large area.
Note the Isolators!
 Overcurrent Protection - Protection of power supplies,
conductors, and connected equipment from excessive flow of
input or output current, including the short circuited current.

 Overcurrent protection is afforded by Fuses and MCB‟s (Miniature

Circuit Breakers. We also have to consider overcurrent and short
circuit current within the PV array to see if string fuses are
applicable.

 For crystalline silicon modules all d.c. components must be rated

@ a voltage of (Voc(stc) x 1.15) and a current of (Isc(stc)x1.25).
For other module types all DC components must be rated @
Voc(stc) and an Isc(stc) for a temperature range of -15 to 80oC.

 Double (basic + supplementary) insulation must be used for

voltages greater than 120V DC.
 String cables of 3 or fewer stings must be rated at a voltage of
Voc(stc)xmx1.15 and current of Isc(stc)x(n-1)x1.25 if no string
fuses are used.
 (m = #of modules per string and n is the # of strings)
 (The module must be able to withstand a reverse current of
2x1.15xIsc)
 If string fuses are used or if there is more than 3 strings the
cable must be rated at a voltage of Voc(stc) x m x 1.15 and
current of Isc(stc)x1.25. This also applies for the DC main cable.
 DC connectors must be rated DC and properly labelled.
 In a PV array formed from a number of strings, fault conditions
can give rise to fault currents flowing through the DC system.
Two key problems need addressing
 overloaded string cables
 significant module reverse currents
Refer to hand out “Planning permission”
 Do you have a sunny place to put it? You'll need a roof or
wall that faces within 90 degrees of south, and isn't
overshadowed by trees or buildings. If the surface is in
shadow for parts of the day, your system will generate less
energy.
 Is your roof strong enough? Solar panels are not light and
the roof must be strong enough to take their weight,
especially if the panel is placed on top of existing tiles. If
in doubt, ask a construction expert or an installer.
 Do you need planning permission? In England, Wales
Scotland and Northern Ireland, you don't need planning
permission for most home solar electricity systems, as
long as they're below a certain size - but you should check
with your local planning officer, especially if your home is
a listed building, or is in a conservation area or World
Heritage Site.
 Planning Permission
 The General Permitted Development Order of
2008 grants the right to carry out the installation
of most PV systems without obtaining planning
permission. Permission must be obtained if:
 The array protrudes more than 200mm from a
roof top.
 The array is visible from the highway in a
Conservation Area or World Heritage site.
 To be mounted on a listed building
 The ground mounted array is more than 4m in
height or within 5m from a boundary.
 The surveyor must as a minimum measure the size of the roof they are
proposing to install the solar panels on. This is occasionally done from the
ground using a laser distance meter, but it is more common to measure the
length of your wall and then the height of your roof space from inside of
your loft.
 Have you looked at the fuse board or consumer unit, a spare breaker is
required along with a 30mA RCD.
 If this is not present a new dedicated consumer unit will require fitting
adjacent to the existing board.
 Have you assessed and explained where the inverter and associated cables
will be positioned.
 Is a Type B RCD required? [Transformer less inverter] HANDOUT REQ.
 Incoming electrical services

 Documentation for the existing electrical installation

 Visual check of earthing arrangements
 Confirmation of suitability of protective equipotential bonding (to incoming gas,
water and other extraneous conductive parts where necessary). This should be
compliant with the latest edition of BS 7671 (IEE wiring regulations)
 Confirmation of a suitable earth loop impedance for the given earthing system
 Availability of a spare way in distribution board and that the distribution board can
take any additional load OR a means to provide a dedicated distribution board for
the AC side of the PV circuit.
 Suitability of the protective device in accordance with the latest edition of BS 7671
 Identification of the district network operator (this will be needed to notify them of
the installation of the PV system)
 Mpan number, this is the 13 digit number that identifies that installation to the
district network operator (DNO) as is usually most easily obtained from the
installations electricity bill
 Generally within the property

 Location for the Inverter and DC isolator if required, as near to the PV modules as
possible, clear area where it can be easily reached and worked on for maintenance
and where it will have good airflow around it to avoid issues with overheating (see
manufacturer's instructions for guidance)
 Cable runs to the inverter from the distribution board
 Location of AC isolators
 Identification of restrictions that may be placed on the methods of installation,
such as times when the power cannot be switched off
 Identification of other hazards (both to the installer and the installation) that may
be present such as asbestos, confined spaces, sharp objects, rodents etc.
 Internal check of roof construction for structural capability to accept PV array and
internal roof assessment to ensure that the work can be carried out within the roof
void safely
 Any additional cabling or positioning of data processing units and digital displays
that may be attached to the system
 External Survey
 When considering the external survey we need to look at the availability
of roof space or area for mounting (if at ground level) and its suitability
for a PV system to be mounted. We also need to consider access issues
for the installation to be completed. As with the internal survey we have
listed below the key points that we think need to be addressed, again
these may need to be added to dependant on any particular site specific
issues.

 Orientation of roof (SE to SW) or orientation of module mounting

system when ground of flat roof mounted

 An assessment of the structures strength and fixing of the modules to

the existing roof support system must be taken into account. An older
property may have a thin roof support system so adding a heavy PV
generator may have a detrimental effect on the whole property.
Construction of roof to be able to take additional loads (static & wind)
following where available the manufacturer's instructions
 Ctd
 Roof type (type of slates so that the appropriate fixing and
flashing kit can be selected)
 Roof construction so that a suitable number and type of
fixings can be chosen for the frame
 Angle of roof or mounting frame
 Any shading that may cover all or part of the proposed
mounting area, this needs to account for the angle of the
sun at all times of the year and times of the day as well as
any seasonal variances (trees etc)
 Access to the area under the roof for the erection of
scaffolding
 Suitable areas for the storage of materials and
equipment (if required)
 Costs for installing a solar electricity system have come down quite a bit in
recent years with an average system (2.7kWp) costing around £12,000
(including VAT at 5%). Solar electricity systems can cost in the region of
£4,000 to £5,000 per kWp installed, but costs per kWp should reduce as
system size increases.
 In general:
 The more electricity the system can generate, the more it costs but the more
it could save
 Solar tiles cost more than conventional panels
 Panels built into a roof are more expensive than those that sit on top but, if
you need major roof repairs, PV tiles can offset the cost of roof tiles
 Savings can be considerable - around 1.2 tonnes of CO2 a year. A 2.7 kWp
system can generate around 50% of a household's yearly electricity needs. If
the system is eligible to receive the Feed In Tariff it could generate savings
and income of around £1,100 per year.
 Maintenance is generally small - you'll need to keep the panels relatively
clean and make sure trees don't begin to overshadow them.
 Feed-in Tariffs (FITs) became available in
Great Britain on 1st April 2010. And isn’t
available in Northern Ireland - although this
is under review.
 Under this scheme energy suppliers have to
(compulsory for big six suppliers) make
regular payments to householders and
communities who generate their own
electricity from renewable or low carbon
sources such as solar electricity panels(PV) or
wind turbines.
 If you are eligible to receive the FIT then you will benefit in 3 ways:
 1. Generation tariff – a set rate paid by the energy supplier for each unit
(or kWh) of electricity you generate. This rate will change each year for
new entrants to the scheme (except for the first 2 years), but once you
join you will continue on the same tariff for 20 years, or 25 years in the
case of solar electricity (PV).
 2. Export tariff - you will receive a further 3p/kWh from your energy
supplier for each unit you export back to the electricity grid, that is
when it isn’t used on site. The export rate is the same for all
technologies.
 3. Energy bill savings – you will be making savings on your electricity
bills , because generating electricity to power your appliances means you
don’t have to buy as much electricity from your energy supplier. The
amount you save will vary depending how much of the electricity you use
on site.
 Deemed export
 Domestic FIT installations are likely to have their export deemed
(estimated) at 50% in most cases until smart meters are rolled out.
 The Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC)
have announced they are bringing forward their review of
Feed-in-Tariffs which will be completed by the end of
2011 (originally scheduled for 2012).
 The comprehensive FITs review will:
 Assess all aspects of the scheme including tariff levels,
administration and eligibility of technologies
 Be completed by the end of the 2011, with tariffs
remaining unchanged until April 2012 (unless the review
reveals a need for greater urgency)
 Fast track consideration of large scale solar projects (over
50kW) with a view to making any resulting changes to
tariffs as soon as practical, subject to consultation and
Parliamentary scrutiny as required by the Energy Act 2008.
 The FITs Order provides for the total cost of
the FITs scheme to be shared among
electricity suppliers according to their market
share (the “levelisation” process).
 We expect that the costs are ultimately
passed on the electricity consumers. As well
as the payments actually made, these costs
include “qualifying FITs costs” (these are the
reasonable costs incurred by a supplier as a
result of the FIT scheme, excluding FIT
payments).
 The company installs the solar panels on south, south-
west or south-east facing roofs
 The company pays for the installation, connection charges
and the maintenance of the panels
 The home owner benefits from free electricity from the.
 Any electricity that is not used is exported into the local
electricity network. Any income associated with this is
likely to go to the installation company
 As the owner of the solar panels, the company receives the
full Feed-in-Tariffs income (approx. £1,000 per year for a
typical 2.7kWp system)
 These free solar PV offers are also referred to as "rent my
roof space" schemes with the solar panel owner simply
'renting' the roof space from the customer.
 Your roof has been specifically designed to take the
load generated by the roof tiles and chimney if you
have one. There are two forces that act on your roof.
The gravitational pull with the tiles bearing down on
structure and the force of the wind lifting the roof
upwards. This means that your roof is supporting the
weight and at the same time preventing anything on
the roof being blown away.
 When you introduce a new structure to your roof you
need to be sure that it will not compromise the
integrity of your roof. Solar panels are typically fixed
directly to the roof rafters or the roof battens. Adding
solar panels to your roof could potentially increase
the load by a quarter.
 Typically this increased load will not cause your
roof to collapse but if the panels are too heavy
for the roof it can cause the roof to sag over
time. The other danger is that a strong wind
could lift the panels off the roof damaging the
roof itself.
 It is important that a structural engineer certifies
that your roof is strong enough for the size of
the solar array being fitted. It may be that your
roof needs strengthening which can cost up to
£500 for the work to be professionally done. This
needs to be taken into account when considering
buying your own panels or taking up one of the
free solar panel offers.
 If you are considering installing solar panels on the
roof you may be concerned about any damage the
panels may do to the structure of the building. There
are two forces at work on the roof, gravity pushing
down and wind trying to lift the roof or panels.
 The roof is designed to take a normal expected load
such as the weight of the roof tiles and the weight of
equipment and people working on the roof and layers
of snow. Prior to panel installation a structural survey
will be done to see if the roof supports need
strengthening. You should not expect any roof
damage due to the solar panels baring any natural
disasters.
 It would be wise to check building insurance, you
should also advise them if panels are installed.
Refer to hand out.

Roof rail MID clamp.

Used to connect panels together on
top the rail
 What do you think is the main disadvantage
of installing a solar panel system ??
 High initial installation capital cost
Sales technique needs to talk about off setting the equity release
from property and the return on their investment.
 When assessing the installation of a PV system, considerations need to
be given to the way in which modules and inverters are stored, handled
and moved. As the module are made up of many different cells which
are joined together under stringent conditions within a factory
environment they need to be handled with care to ensure that no
damage occurs to the modules before, or during the installation process.
 As with any technology this means simply following manufacturer's
instructions as to how to store, and handle the modules and inverters
but in the absence of such instructions the following should be
observed:
◦ Modules should be stored horizontally
◦ The storage area should be clean and dry
◦ The modules and inverter should be stored in such a way as to avoid any possible
mechanical damage
◦ Sudden variances in temperature and humidity should be avoided especially where
the inverters are concerned
◦ Modules are made of glass, therefore handling of them should take into account the
fragility that glass panels have
◦ When exposed to daylight the modules will produce a voltage and current, when
handling and connecting the modules care must be taken to minimise the risk of
electric shock
 When commencing the installation of the system it is important to complete the work in the
safest and most effective way possible. One of the largest hazards, apart from potentially
working at height, is the installation of the modules during daylight when they will have an
electrical output. To minimise this risk the following sequence should be applied to each
string:
 1. Secure DC isolator (or inverter where the DC isolator is integral) in place
 2. Attach DC cables to the isolator or inverter(where integral)
 3. Ensure that no other connections are made to the isolator / inverter, in the case of inverters
where the isolator is integral do not wire up the AC side until all DC cables have been installed
and terminated
 4. Run the DC cables to the roof
 5. When the first module is installed connect it to one of the cables that have been run from
the DC isolator.
 6. As successive modules are installed connect the cables between them
 7. When the final module is installed connect it to the other cable from the isolator (as well as
its adjacent module)
 8. The remaining connections to the DC isolator or AC connections to the inverter can then be
made

 If the above sequence is followed then it will ensure that there will not be any live cables, un-
terminated, in the building. It will also ensure that connections are not made under load during
the assembly of the array.
 Roofing is an extremely important factor to consider
when installing a PV system as an old building having
thin rafters and purlins may not have the desired
strength to facilitate a full PV array through weight
and the natural forces of wind in which the roof
structure will be under. An assessment of the roofing
structure, the age of the building and the capacity for
the building to take the new system is essential.

 Remember: PV modules have a general weight of

approximately 15kg each with the added weight of
the fixing structure; this may be too heavy for some
installations. PV arrays have a life span of 20+ years.
If the roofing is in need of replacement in the near
future it should be done before the array is installed.
 There are options such as free standing
systems and consoles that can be erected
pretty much anywhere where there is
sufficient space. We must now consider the
roof structure. Generally there are seven
elements to a roof structure.
 Sarking/felt Felting used beneath the battens
for weather and insulation
 Battens Timber strips where the tiles and
slates are fixed

Battens
 Strut Near vertical supports for rafters

Strut
 Tie-Beam Horizontal beam across the roof at
the eaves

Tie beam
 Wall Plate Horizontal beam along eaves
 Ridge board Horizontal beam along ridge
 Purlin Horizontal roof beam supporting the
rafters

Purlin
 These components can be seen on the next page and the
condition of all of these must be assessed to ensure the
roof integrity and structure can be maintained during and
after the installation, and also that the safety of the
installers and the householders can be ensured whilst the
work is being carried out. If it can be seen that the roof
components are in poor repair then advice and guidance
should be sought from a roofing professional via the
National Federation of Roofing Contractors (NFRC).

 Where practicable the modules should ideally be no closer

than 500mm to the roof edge and if less than 300mm then
additional consideration needs to be given to fixing
points, wind lift and wind noise as well as rain overshoot
beyond the guttering.
 Calculate wind pressure using the following
formula
 w = qp x cp
 Where: w … is the wind pressure in Pascals
 qp … is the peak velocity pressure derived in
steps a-c
 cp … is the pressure coefficient for the
particular installation
Apply correction factors for site altitude (h) in meters:

Note: the altitude correction formula for sites over 100m

above sea level calculates a 20% increase for each 100m
above the initial 100m. Hence a site at 180m above sea
level would have a correction factor of 1.16
 Site classification Correction factor
 Zone 1 None
 Zone 2 – slope up to 10% 1.2
 Zone 2 – slope up to 20% 1.45
 Zone 2 – slope up to 30% 1.7
 Example calculation #1
 Above roof PV array, mounted away from edges in central
zone of roof (Cp uplift = -1.3)
 Site located in central London (more than 2km from edge
of town)
◦ Site more than 20km from the sea
◦ Building height = 10m
◦ Site altitude = 20m
◦ Topography = not significant

a) Site in in zone 1 (22 m/s) → Table gives value for qp = 763Pa

b) Altitude correction factor = none
c) Topography correction factor =
d) W uplift = 763 x -1.3 = -992Pa (value excludes safety factor)
 Example calculation #2
 Above roof PV array, mounted away from edges in
central zone of roof (Cp uplift = -1.3)
 Site located in rural Yorkshire near the top of a hill of 8%
slope
 Site more than 20km from the sea
 Building height = 10m
 Site altitude = 150m

 Site in in zone 2 (24 m/s) → Table gives value for qp =

1038Pa
 Altitude correction factor = 1 + (150-100/100)*0.2 = 1.1
 Topography correction factor = 1.2
 W uplift = 1038 x 1.1 x 1.2 x -1.3 = -1781Pa (value
excludes safety factor)
Roof rail end clamps.
Used to firmly hold panels in place
at each end
Mounting rail
Roof rail spacer
Roof rail
mounting
kit
 Roof tile removed for roof hook

Pilot hole drilling ready for tile hook

Tile hooks MUST be bolted down

with supplied fixings
 Notching out the tile to accept the cable entry

Roof tile grinded away to accept small PVC

conduit to protect the cable
Note tile grinded away
 String 1, 2 & 3.

Strings are lengths of arrays wired

in series and parallel.
An array is simply
the WHOLE
collection of panels.
 Integrated PV Array
 An Integrated PV array is one which is built into the fabric of the roof
system or single tiles which can be installed similar to a traditional roof
tiles. It is important with an integrated system that an air gap is provided
due to the heating effect caused by the PV array. Integrated systems also
have to form a waterproof seal to prevent leakage in to the array or the
building
 A non integrated system relies on external mountings to set the
PV array on. This mounting system is usually made up of
horizontal rails fixed to the roof structure or the rafters beneath
the tiles. Mounting the rails horizontally so they cross many
rafters means that the fixing will distribute the weight and give
more fixing and strengthening options especially in windy areas
where the wind can create lifting beneath the array so strength is
important. The rails will normally be fixed via a roof hook.
 When installing the DC cable systems it is important to ensure that the cables are
well secured to avoid them being able to move during their lifetime. Problems
surrounding cable movement can lead to excessive noise in the building due to
the cables “knocking” on the roof structure (tiles / train slates) and the obvious
strain that this can put onto connections and the cable itself. One of the easiest
ways to achieve the security of the cables is to use cable ties to tie the cables to
the array frame, if this method is chosen then this MUST be undertaken during the
installation of each individual module as to undertake this after the module
installation would be a near impossible task.

 Where the cabling systems enter the building it must be ensured that the
penetrations are watertight and do not adversely affect the structure of the
building. When using roof mounted systems the most common way of entering
the building is through the tile or slate that the system is installed on, where this
is the case there are a number of proprietary slate adaptors and entry systems to
suit most types of roof structure.

 Alternatively you could choose to form your own slate adaptor using one or more
sections of lead, however the proprietary slate adaptors are more reliable and
should be used in preference where available. Where the cable entry point is
through a wall then in addition to the water tightness of the building we also need
to consider the structural integrity of the wall and that, after the hole has been
drilled, it won't compress, cut or damage the cabling in any way; for this reason
the same methods of protecting the cabling system that apply to AC cables should
be applied to DC cables, dependant on the wall construction.
 PV tracking systems also work best when you
have a high proportion of direct irradiation which
allows for accurate tracking and the best
possibility to gain from the tracking system,
where diffuse irradiation is most dominant it may
well not be so viable to utilise a tracker.
 For the size of systems that we cover within this
manual it is unlikely to be financially beneficial to
install a tracking system due to the cost and
complexity that can be involved, it may well be
the case that where the customer is considering a
tracking system there is a case to spend the
additional money on more static modules so long
as there is the available space to do so.
 The best angle to fit solar panels is South
East facing & at 30° inclination

 How do we measure inclination?

◦ We use a measuring tool attached to rafter to

obtain angle.

◦ Many different types are available

Painted end is ALWAYS north.

Smartphone app’s don’t

replace a compass!
 With all electrical installations there is a requirement
by the regulations to inspect and test all new
components that make up the installation to verify
that all equipment has been installed and selected in
accordance with BS7671 and the appropriate
standards. The inspection and testing process is to
confirm before energising that there are no undue
faults on the system and the integrity of the electrical
installation is not compromised.

 Inspection and testing must be carried out on both

the AC and DC side can be summarised into the
following key points for the DC side, for more
detailed information please refer to BS7671 and the
DTI guide to installing PV:
 Inspection
 PV array
 Inverter
 DC cables
 AC cables
 Earthing arrangements
 Labelling

 Testing array
 Temperature
 Calculation of Voc
 Adjusting figure(s) for temperature
 Measure Voc and compare results
 Measure irradiance
 Calculate Isc
 Measure Isc and compare results
 The inspection process precedes the testing and can be broken down as
follows.
 A visual inspection of the system and components is required and the
following items should be inspected:-
 AC wiring and connections
 AC isolators and junction boxes
 Full labelling of the AC and DC supplies
 Earthing and lightening protection
 Inverter/s
 DC wiring and connections including PV cabling
 DC isolators and junction boxes
 PV modules
 Overcurrent protective devices
 Array mounting system (secure and properly weather sealed)
 Confirm that the modules comply with the international standards IEC
61215 (crystalline modules) or IEC 61646 (thin film modules)
 Confirm that the inverter has a type test certificate to the requirements
of ER G83/1
 There are a number of tests that need to be
taken before the installation can be safely put
into service and these can be broken down
into groups of tests.
 Module testing
 Array Testing
 Inverter testing, AC and DC
 AC testing
 DC testing
 The testing of a PV system should begin during the Installation phase. As each module is
installed it should be tested as this saves time in troubleshooting and the need to dismantle
the array to find a faulty module. Below is a sequence for module testing:-
 1. Place the module in constant sunlight and then measure the open circuit voltage on the
output of the module

 2. Remove the module from the sunlight (preferably by covering it). Then short the output of
the module and then once again place it in sunlight. Use a clamp on dc amp meter to then
measure the short circuit current. (Not all clamp on meters will measure DC amps)

 3. At the same time the irradiance and temperature should be measured

 4. The Isc is then multiplied to (irradiance @ standard test conditions / irradiance measured).

 The Voc is then corrected for the temperature change (-0.5% change for each degree of
increase from 25oC).
 These numbers can then be compared to the electrical ratings on the module nameplate to find
if the module is operating to its design parameters or is faulty or out of spec.
 The open circuit voltage and short circuit current of the array need to be measured prior to
connection to the AC supply. Below is a sequence for array testing.
 1. Isolate all of the strings by ensuring that all of the string DC isolators and the main DC array
isolators are set to the OFF position.

 2. For each string in turn do the following:

 a. Connect a voltmeter across the positive and negative input terminals of the DC isolator and
record the voltage displayed. Then correct this value for temperature changes from the
standard test conditions. This is the open circuit Voltage (Voc).

 b. Verify that the open circuit voltage value is around n times Voc for a module, from
manufacturer's data, where n is the number of modules connected in series in the string.

 c. With the DC isolator set in the OFF position, connect a shorting link across the positive and
negative output of the DC isolator, i.e. not on the PV side of the DC isolator.

 d. Clamp a current adapter (for non-intrusive current measurement, i.e. an „amp clamp‟)
around the shorting link.

 e. Switch the DC isolator to the ON position and record the current displayed. This is the short
circuit current (Isc).
 A simultaneous reading of the in-plane irradiance, GI, should be
taken.

 Divide the measured value of Isc by the measured value of the

in-plane irradiance and multiply the result by 1000 to normalise
the measured value of Isc to STC radiation (1000 W/m2).

 Verify that the normalised short circuit current value agrees with
manufacturer's data for the module.

 Switch the DC isolator to the OFF position before removing the

amp clamp and the shorting link. Record the current, voltage and
radiation values in a table.
 D.C. commissioning testing
 1. Continuity of conductors - most likely to
have been verified when conducting the Voc
or Isc tests

 2. Insulation resistance

 a. First disconnect any devices that are

voltage sensitive or that could cause
inaccurate test results.
 b. There are two ways to measure the insulation resistance. The first being to
measure the resistance of the Negative cable to earth and then the Positive cable
to earth.
 The second is used if there is a possibility of damaging the modules. To do this
the negative and positive cables are shorted together and then insulation
resistance to Earth is measured.
 The following table shows the minimum resistance for various system voltages.
The test voltage must not exceed the module or cable rating. Test method
System Voltage (Voc stc X 1.25) Test Voltage Minimum
impedance
 Array Positive and Negative Shorted Together
 3. Polarity – Verified by the Voc test and
observing the polarity displayed on the test
instrument

 4. Functionality of switchgear – Verified by

use of DC isolator
 The inverter tests are to be completed after the array DC and the
AC supply have been connected. Some inverters will have digital
read out monitors built into their units which will show AC
voltage, DC array voltage, AC and DC current, and frequency.
 Below is the sequence for energisation of the inverter.
 Turn on DC isolator (PV array output)
 Turn on the AC isolator (grid connection)
 Check inverter operations (LED‟s, status indicators)

 Under G83/1 the inverter should be in standby mode for the first
3 minutes.
 The inverter should have a DC voltage input of approximately
80% of the measured PV open circuit voltage indicating the
inverter is tracking the maximum power point (MPP)
 AC Testing
 The testing of the AC side of the system must
conform to BS 7671 so each of the following
must be satisfied as a minimum; the specifics of
each test are not covered by this course.
 1. Continuity of protective conductors
 2. Insulation resistance
 3. Polarity (live and dead)
 4. Earth fault loop impedance (TN systems) or
earth electrode resistance (TT system)
 5. Prospective fault current.
 6. Functionality of RCDs and switchgear.
 Module voltage and current (individual module output). Depending on
the type, composite and size of the PV module being used, this will
determine the output voltage and current. A typical 36 cell module
measuring 1mtr x 0.5mtr will have a Voc (voltage open circuit) of
21.4volts (approx.) and an Isc (short circuit current) of 4.45Amps
(approx.)
 Date and time. We will be required to input the time and date of the
tests as every day can have different characteristics so comparing the
tests results can give us an indication of the overall efficiency of the
generator over a long period of time.
 Temperature. The temperature of the modules at time of test is
required as there will be a difference between temperature of the
module on a specific day and the STC (standard test conditions)
temperature we use for the calculations. STC temperature is set at 25˚C.
 Solar irradiance levels. STC irradiance levels are set at 1000W/m2
(1000 watts per metre square) in the UK. It is very unlikely that these
levels will be achieved or constant in the UK. We measure the irradiance
levels by the use of an IRRADIANCE METER
 Example
 We have installed 12 BP 75 Wp crystalline modules (Voc = 21.4v and an Isc = 4.45amps) on to
a roof as one string, the time of day is 10.25am and the date 05/07/08. The weather
conditions are overcast and we have an irradiance level of 350W/m2. The module temperature
is 35˚C.
 Voc Measurement
 1. Voc = 12 (amount of modules) x 21.4 (voltage per module) = 256.8v
 2. Temperature correction facto r= (35˚C(measured)-25˚C(stc)) x0.5%=5% change or
0.05x256.8v=12.84v
 3. Voc = 256.8v (calculated from step 1) – 12.84v (calculated from step 2) = 244volts
 4. Measure the Voc actual of the array using a multimeter. Example measured Voc = 239v
 5. Expected Voc = 244v. Actual measured Voc = 239v. A difference of 5v or 2%

 Isc Measurement
 1. Isc at STC for an individual module is 4.45 Amps
 2. Isc = 4.45 x 350W/m2 (irradiance level) / 1000 W/m2 (stc) = 1.55A
 3. Measure the actual Isc of the array = 1.67A (example)
 4. Therefore Isc measured 1.67A – Isc calculated 1.55A making a difference of 0.12A or 7%

 The differences in actual measurements and calculated measurements could be due to weather
conditions, temperature, light levels, shading etc. The difference in the levels of the above
calculation is considered reasonable. A large difference could be caused by many possible
problems such as shading, module malfunction or damage to the cables and components.
 Maintenance & fault finding with PV systems is a relatively straight forward
process that can often pivot around any message that may appear in the inverter,
however before we detail these we must first consider the risks involved whilst
working on these systems. Often the module will be generating an amount of
power whilst we are working on them as it is very difficult and it can often be
more dangerous to attempt to isolate the modules before working on them.
 The risks that we may encounter are as follows:
 DC voltages present
 Working at heights
 AC voltage present
 Generation when not expected (if for example the modules were not showing a
voltage then the sun came out whilst you are working on them)
 Confined spaces (roof spaces)
 Asbestos
 High ambient temperatures (roof spaces)
 Working platforms (either external scaffold or within the roof space)

 It is vital that you assess any of the above that may apply, or indeed any others
that may apply that are specific to the site that you are working on, prior to
undertaking any work on the system.
 Maintenance & fault finding with PV systems is a relatively straight forward
process that can often pivot around any message that may appear in the inverter,
however before we detail these we must first consider the risks involved whilst
working on these systems. Often the module will be generating an amount of
power whilst we are working on them as it is very difficult and it can often be
more dangerous to attempt to isolate the modules before working on them.
 The risks that we may encounter are as follows:
 DC voltages present
 Working at heights
 AC voltage present
 Generation when not expected (if for example the modules were not showing a
voltage then the sun came out whilst you are working on them)
 Confined spaces (roof spaces)
 Asbestos
 High ambient temperatures (roof spaces)
 Working platforms (either external scaffold or within the roof space)

 It is vital that you assess any of the above that may apply, or indeed any others
that may apply that are specific to the site that you are working on, prior to
undertaking any work on the system.
 When undertaking maintenance it is important to ensure that the system is
performing, and has the output, that was originally specified (dependant on
annual irradiance levels). To enable this, personnel that undertake maintenance
must have access to the PV array test report and the declaration of expected
annual output from the original quotation or documentation.
 A basic maintenance check list can be drawn up and used to check the system and
should include as a minimum the following:
 Check to see if the customer is aware of any issues
 Electrical installation periodic inspection report on the AC side as per BS 7671
 Verification that the array fixings are still in a suitable condition
 Verification that any roof penetrations are still watertight
 Verification of the condition of the DC supply cables
 Check the inverter data log (where possible) to verify actual output against what
might be expected
 Module inspection. An inspection should be made for physical damage, the
entrance of water into the module, delamination or any form of degradation of cell
connections.
 Array mounting. The mounting system should be inspected for corrosion or
weakness. The weather sealing of the roof penetrations must also be checked.
 Cleaning of the array. The array depending on the location and inclination may
suffer from dust, dirt, salt water if near the coast etc. so cleaning the modules on
a regular basis depending on the amount of soiling will be required. Soiling can
cause a decrease of 10-15% in the output. The obvious danger is working at
heights. Refer to working at heights documents. Care should be taken when
cleaning the module so as not to remove the anti-reflection coating as this will
affect the output of the modules
 Check that shading is still not affecting the array, for example:
 New buildings causing shading
 Dirt or debris covering the modules
 Growth of trees or hedges locally that may affect the arrays collection
 Monitoring. Monitoring can be as simple as noting down the output of the PV
system once a month and comparing it against the expected output. A significant
difference must be investigated as a possible problem. Some monitoring systems
are run in real time by a computer which in some systems can even monitor
individual modules. This allows the operator to locate faulty or
 problematic modules before significant power generation is lost. The cost and the
complexity of such systems must be balanced against possible losses. Many
market incentives require some form of monitoring to be part of their program.
 Completion of the relevant paperwork for the maintenance procedure