Chapter 14: Forging of Metals

14.1 Introduction
• Forging: a Process in which the work-
piece is shaped by compressive forces
applied through various dies and
tools.
• Typical forged products: bolts, rivets,
connecting rods, shafts for turbines,
gears, hand tools, etc...
• Figure 14.3 shows a part made by 3
different processes: (a) casting, (b)
machining, (c) forging
14.1 Introduction
 14.1 Introduction
• Cold forged parts have good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy.
• Hot forging requires smaller forces, but it
produces dimensional accuracy and surface
finish that are not as good as in cold forging.
 14.2 Open die forging
• Most open-die forgings generally weigh 15-
500 Kg, forgings as heavy as 275 tons have
been made.
• Sizes may range from very small parts (nails,
pins, and bolts) up to 23 m for ships shafts.
• Upsetting or flat-die forging (Fig. 14.3): The
die surfaces in open-die forging may have
simple cavities, to produce relatively simple
forgings.
 14.2 Open die forging

Figure 14.3: (a) Ideal deformation of a solid cylindrical specimen compressed between
flat frictionless dies, an operation known as upsetting. (b) Deformation in upsetting
with friction at the die-workpiece interfaces. Note barrelling of the billet caused by
friction.
 14.2 Open die forging
• Barreling is caused primarily by frictional forces at the die-
work-piece interfaces that oppose the outward flow of the
materials at these interfaces. Barreling can be minimized by
using an effective Lubricant.
• Barreling can also occur in upsetting hot work-pieces
between cold dies. The material at and near the interfaces
cools rapidly, while the rest of the work-piece remains
relatively hot. Thus, the material at the ends of the work-
piece has higher resistance to deformation than the
material at its center. Consequently, the central portion of
the work-piece expands laterally to a greater extent than
do its ends.
• Barreling from thermal effects can be reduced or
eliminated by using heated dies.
 14.2 Open die forging -cogging
• Cogging (drawing out): an open-die forging
operation in which thickness of a bar is
reduced by successive forging steps at specific
intervals. Because contact area per stroke is
small, a long section of a bar can be reduced
in thickness without requiring large forces or
machinery
 14.2 Open die forging -cogging

Figure 14.4: (a) Schematic illustration of a cogging operation on a rectangular bar.

Blacksmiths use a similar procedure to reduce the thickness of parts in small increments by
heating the workpiece and hammering it numerous times along the length of the part. (b)
Reducing the diameter of a bar by open-die forging; note the movements of the die and
the workpiece. (c) The thickness of a ring being reduced by open-die forging.
 14.2 Open die forging
• The forging force, F, in an open-die forging
operation on a solid cylindrical piece:
•

• Yf : flow stress of the material, stress required to

continue plastic deformation of the work-piece at
a particular true strain.
• µ : coefficient of friction,
• r and h: radius and height of the work-piece
• example
 14.2 Open die forging
• Example14.1: A solid cylindrical slug made of 304
stainless steel is 150 mm in diameter and 100
mm high. It is reduced in height by 50% at room
temperature by open-die forging with flat dies.
Assuming that the coefficient of friction is 0.2,
calculate the forging force at the end of the
stroke.
 14.3 impression-die and closed-die
forging
• In impression-die forging, the work-piece
acquires the shape of the die cavities while
being forged between two shaped dies (Fig.
14.5).
• The thin flash cools rapidly, and because of its
frictional resistance, it subjects the material in
the die cavity to high pressures, thereby
encouraging the filling of the die cavity.
 14.3 impression-die and closed-die
forging

• FIGURE I4.5 (a) through (c) Stages in impression-die forging of a solid round billet.
Note the formation of flash, which is excess metal that is subsequently trimmed
off. (d) Standard terminology for various features of a forging die
 14.3 impression-die and closed-die
forging
• Pre-forming processes, such as
fullering and edging (Figs.14.7b and
c), are used to distribute the
material into various regions of the
blank.
• In fullering material is distributed
away from an area.
• In edging, it is gathered into a
localized area.
• The part is then formed into the
rough shape of a connecting rod by
a process called blocking, using
blocker dies.
• The final operation is the finishing
of the forging in impression dies
that give the forging its final shape.
The flash is removed later by a
trimming operation.
 14.3 impression-die and closed-die
forging
• The blank is placed
on the lower die and,
as the upper die
begins to descend,
the blank’s shape
gradually changes, as
is shown for the
forging of a
connecting rod in fig.
14.7a.
 14.3 impression-die and closed-die
forging
• The forging force, F, required
to carry out an impression-
die forging operation can be
estimated from the formula
F = KYfA
where K is a multiplying factor
obtained from Table 14.2, Yf is
the flow stress of the material
at the forging temperature,
and A is the projected area of
the forging including the flash.
 14.3 impression-die and closed-die
forging
• In true closed-die or flash-less forging ,flash
does not form and the work-piece completely
fills the die cavity. Consequently, the forging
pressure is very high,
• Undersize blanks prevent complete filling of
die cavity.
• Oversize blanks generate excessive pressures
and may cause dies to fail.
 14.3.1 Precision forging
• In order to reduce the number of additional finishing
operations required-hence the cost-the trend has been toward
greater precision in forged products (net-shape forming).
• Special dies produce parts having greater accuracies than those
from impression die forging and requiring much less machining.
• Process requires higher capacity equipment because of greater
forces required to obtain fine details on part.
• Precision forging requires special and more complex dies,
precise control of billet’s volume and shape, accurate
positioning of the billet in die cavity, and hence higher
investment. However, less material is wasted, less subsequent
machining required.
 14.4 Various Forging Operations-
Coining
• The slug is coined in a completely
closed die cavity.
• In order to produce fine details the
pressures required can be as high
as 5 or 6 times the strength of the
material.
• Lubricants cannot be applied in
coining, because they can become
entrapped in the die cavities, and
being incompressible, prevent the
full reproduction of die surface
details.
• Coining process is also used with
forgings and with other products, to
improve surface finish and to
impart the desired dimensional
accuracy. This process, called sizing,
involves high pressures, with little
change in part shape during sizing.
Figure 14.10: Schematic illustration of
the coining process
 14.4 Various Forging Operations-
Heading
• Heading: upsetting
operation usually
performed at end of
round rod or wire to
produce a larger x-
section.
• Typical products are
nails, bolt heads,
screws, rivets, and
various other
fasteners(Fig.
14.11). FIGURE 14.11: (a) Heading operation to form heads on
fasteners, such as nails and rivets.
(b) Sequence of operations used to produce a typical
bolt head by heading.
 14.4 Various Forging Operations-
Heading
• Rules for upset forging:
1. Max Length of unsupported metal that can
be upset in one blow without buckling: 3
times the diameter of bar.
2. lengths of stock greater than 3 times
diameter may be upset successfully such that
the diameter of the cavity is no more than
1.5 the diameter of the bar.