Why Study Material Science?

 Materials are an essential part of all products and

process.

 Material science provides engineers and scientists with

the knowledge required to
 Select appropriate materials;
 Design materials appropriate for specific applications;
 Use materials appropriately, efficiently, and safely;
 Dispose of these materials after their useful life.
 Four Fundamental Tenets
 The principles governing the behavior of materials are
grounded in science and are understandable.
 The properties of a given material are governed by its
structure. Processing can alter structure in specific
and predictable ways.
 The properties of all materials change over time and
with exposure to the environment.
 When selecting a material for a specific application,
sufficient and appropriate testing must be performed
to ensure that the material will remain suitable for the
reasonable useful life of the product.
 Responsibilities of a Material
Scientist of Engineer
 Understand the properties associated with the various
classes of materials;

 Know why these properties exist and how they may be

altered to make a material more suitable for a specific
application;

 Be able to measure important properties of a material

and determine how those properties will impact
performance;
 Responsibilities (cont.)
 Evaluate the economic considerations that ultimately
govern most materials issues;

 Consider the long term effects of using a specific

material on the environment.
 What Issues Impact Materials
Design and Selection?
 What if you needed to
replace copper piping in
a factory?
 Should you replace it
with
 Copper again?
 Stainless Steel?
 PVC?
 Something else?
 Other issues
 How does cost factor in?

 What will you do with the copper pipe that you

remove?
 Use if elsewhere in the factory?
 Sell it for scrap?
 Sell it to another factory?
 Take it to a recycling center?
 Bury it in a landfill?
 Sell it on eBay?
 Property Considerations for
Specific Applications
 One must determine which properties are important
to a specific application:
 Cost?
 Strength?
 Corrosion Resistance?
 Weight?

 One must also realize that the requirements for the

material may change as product needs evolve over
time.
 Example – The Evolution of
Automobile Windshields
 Before 1919, most cars had no windshield and the
driver often was sprayed with mud or debris.
 Car designers likely generated a list like this one for the
first windshield material
 It must be transparent
 It must be impervious to water
 It must be tough enough to resist breaking from minor
impacts (gravel, hail stones, etc.)
 It must be inexpensive enough to not alter the price of the car
 It must withstand a variety of temperatures (from below
freezing to above 100F)
 The Answer - Glass
 But glass refracts light
distorting the position of
images.
 The problem became so
intense that many cars
used split windshields so
that the driver could
open the top piece to see
out.
 New Problems Result in New
Solutions
 In 1928, a new process was developed that reduced the
distortion dramatically and also lowered the price of
the windshield.

 The split windshield disappeared virtually overnight.

 The solution resulted from group of materials

scientists and engineers combining their knowledge of
the structure and properties of glass with their
knowledge of refraction to fix a problem.
 A New Problem Develops
 As cars became more
common, accidents
became bigger problems.
 Glass shatters on impact
and often injured drivers
more than the collision.
 The solution – safety
glass. Thin layers of film
are placed between thin
glass panes.
 The Evolution Continues
 As cars became capable of reaching greater speeds, air
resistance became more of an issue.

 Curved window would help but glass was produced in

flat sheets.

 By 1934, the first curved windshields began to appear

but it took until the late 1950s for manufacturer’s to
make curved side windows that were affordable.
 Modern Improvements
 Tempered safety glass
causes windshields to
crack in smooth
fragments.
 Tinted windows help
reduce overheating of
cars parked in the sun
and glare that blinds
drivers momentarily.
 A Modern Example – The Space
Shuttle
 External materials must
withstand temperatures
from near absolute zero
in space to 3000ºF during
re-entry
 Black silica-based tiles
line the bottom of the
shuttle, supplemented
by insulating blankets
and a second layer of
white tiles
 Space Shuttle - Continued
 The nose and leading edge
experience the greatest
heating during re-entry.
 Advanced carbon-carbon
composites channel heat
away from the cabin area.
 The thermal system took
years to develop and still
represents one of the
largest challenges in the
shuttle program
 Heuristics for Selection
 Too many materials are
available to perform a
detailed analysis of each
one for every application

 Engineers use heuristics

(like the Ashby-style
chart) to narrow the
search.
 Impact of Bonding on Properties
 The Bohr model shows
electrons revolving
around the nucleus in
discrete energy levels

 Quantum mechanics
govern how these
electrons fill the specific
levels and how they
interact with each other
 Four Quantum Numbers
 Principal Quantum Number (n) – determines the
energy of the electrons.
 Second Quantum Number (l) – determines the
general shape of the electron cloud.
 Third Quantum Number (ml) – indicates the spatial
orientation of the electron cloud.
 Fourth Quantum Number (Ms) – represents the spin
of the individual electrons.
Principal Quantum Number
 Innermost level is assigned
n=2, next level is n=2, etc.

 Letters are assigned to

represent the individual
orbitals (K corresponds to
n=1; L corresponds to n=2,
etc.)
Second Quantum Number
 Some of the energy levels
spilt into sublevels
 The sublevels are assigned as
follows
 First = s
 Second = p
 Third = d
 Fourth = f
 The maximum number of
suborbitals is equal to the
principle quantum number
Third Quantum Number
Fourth Quantum Number
 The fourth quantum number has no relationship to
the other three.
 The two possible values are Ms = + ½ or – ½
 Electrons with the same value have parallel spins
while those of opposite values have opposite spins
 The Pauli exclusion principle shows that no two
electrons can have the same set of four quantum
numbers
Interactions between atoms
 Electrons in the outermost levels interact first.
 When the outer shells are unfilled, atoms gain, lose, or
borrow electrons which is the basis of bonding.
Optimal Distance between Atoms
 Interactions are blends of
attractive and repulsive forces
 Both forces are a function of
distance
 The point at which the
difference between the
attractive – repulsive forces is
greatest represents the
optimal distance
Polarity
 When different molecules
interact, one has a greater
affinity for electrons than the
other.

 The electron density of a

typical polar bond is shown
on the right.
Electronegativity
 Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract
electrons to itself in a covlent bond
Covalent vs Ionic Bonding
 The polarity of a covalent
bond is the partial ionic
character
 Real bonds lie somewhere
between ionic and covalent
 The difference in
electronegativity corresponds
directly to the percent ionic
character of the bond
Dipole Forces
 Electrostatic interactions
between adjacent molecules
are called Dipole Forces
 The most extreme form of
dipole forces result from the
interaction of a hydrogen
atom with a highly
electronegative atom
resulting in hydrogen
bonding.
Dispersion Forces (or Van der
Waals forces)
 Interactions resulting from
momentary concentraion
variations in the electron
clouds of adjacent atoms
 The interactions are brief and
weak, but large molecules
(such as polymers) have
opportunities for many
simultaneous interactions
Metallic Bonds
 Valence atoms in electrons
behave as a delocalized sea of
electrons

 The behavior, illustrated in

the picture on the right,
allows for high conductivity

Electron Sea
Change of Properties over time
 The properties of materials change with time for a
variety of reasons including:
 Corrosion
 Fatigue
 Chemical Scission
 Scientists and engineers must take care to be certain
that the important material properties will remain at
acceptable levels throughout the useful life of the
product.
Sustainability and Green
Engineering
 Sustainability is meeting the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their needs
 Sustainable design involves four key points:
 Examination of methods of conserving energy and water
resources
 Looking for opportunities to recycle or reuse existing
materials
 Selecting renewable resources when practical
 Considering the end use (landfill, recycle, etc.) of a material as
part of the design process.
Green Engineering
 The EPA defines Green
Engineering as “the design,
commercialization, and use
of processes and products
which are feasible and
economical while minimizing
generation of pollution at the
source and risk to human
health and the environment”
 Product lifecycles are key
Nine Principles of Green
Engineering
 Engineer processes and products holistically, use
systems analysis, and integrate environmental impact
assessment tools
 Conserve and improve natural ecosystems while
protecting human health and well-being
 Use life cycle thinking in all engineering activities
 Ensure that all material and energy balance inputs and
outputs are inherently safe and as benign as possible
 Minimize depletion of natural resources
Nine Principles of Green
Engineering (cont.)
 Strive to prevent waste
 Develop and apply engineering solutions while being
cognizant of local geography, aspirations, and cultures
 Cultivate engineering solutions beyond current or
dominant technologies; improve, innovate, and invent
(technologies) to achieve sustainability
 Actively engage communities and stakeholders in the
development of engineering solutions
Classes of materials
 Metals – materials whose atoms share electrons such
that any given electron is equally likely to be associated
with a large number of atoms
 Polymers – long chains of repeated units with covalent
bonds from end-to-end
 Ceramics – compounds containing metal atoms
bonded to non-metal atoms (most commonly oxygen,
nitrogen, or carbon
 Composites – mixtures of two materials in which each
material continues to exist in distinct phases
Metallic Atoms
Properties of metals
 Conductive and strong, but
capable of being shaped
 Often opaque with a surface
that becomes shiny when
polished
 Most occur in nature as metal
oxides
 Metals are often blended to
form alloys which enable the
material to form a wider
range of properties
Atoms commonly found in
polymers
Types of polymers
 Thermoplastic polymers have
no bonding between adjacent
chains. They can be remelted
and reshaped repeatedly

 Thermoset polymers have

bonds between chains and
cannot be reshaped
Ceramics
 Include metal oxides,
cements, and glasses

 Most tend to be strong but

brittle

 Because they are blends of

metals and non-metals,
ceramics include atoms from
the entire periodic table
Main Classes of Composites
 Particulate – composites containing large numbers of
course particles bound in a matrix (ex – the blend of
gravel and cement in concrete)
 Fiber-reinforced – Strong fibers oriented and bound to
a matrix that protect the fibers and transfer load. (ex –
silicon carbide – metal matrix composites used in jet
engines)
 Laminar – consist of alternating layers of different
materials bonded together (like the wood veneer and
epoxy layers used to make plywood)
Categories of materials with
special properties
 Electronic materials – noted for their special abilities
in conducting electrons. They include conductors,
semiconductors, and insulators
 Optical materials – noted for the way they interact
with light (ex – optical glass fibers)
 Biomaterials – designed specifically for use in
biological systems (ex – artificial organs or prosthetic
limbs)