The capacity that A has to influence the behavior

of B so that B acts in accordance with A’s wishes

Two facets:
◦ Potential: power does not need to be actualized to
be effective
◦ Dependency: based on the available alternatives
and their desirability
Differences Leadership Power
Goal Requires goal Only needs
Compatibility congruence dependence
Focuses on Concerned with
Direction of
downward influence in all
Influence
influence directions
Broader topic:
focuses on
Research Emphasizes
tactics used by
Emphasis leadership style
individuals and
groups
Due to organizational position:

 Coercive Power
◦ Complies from fear of the negative results
 Reward Power
◦ Complies due to desire for positive
benefits
 Legitimate Power
◦ From the formal authority to control and
use organizational resources
Stems from an individual’s unique
characteristics:
 Expert
◦ Influence wielded as a result of expertise, special
skill, or knowledge
 Referent
◦ Based on identification with a person who has
desirable resources or personal traits - charisma
 Expert and referent power are positively
related to performance and commitment

 Reward and legitimate power are

unrelated to organizational outcomes

 Coercive power is negatively related to

employee satisfaction and commitment
 Used to translate power bases into specific
actions that influence others
 More immediate than power bases
 Can result in the accumulation of a power
base
Legitimacy Pressure
Rational persuasion Coalitions
Inspirational appeals
Consultation
Exchange
Personal appeals
Ingratiation
 Most effective:
◦ Rational Persuasion
◦ Inspirational Appeals
◦ Consultation
 Least effective:
◦ Pressure
 Combining tactics increases effectiveness
 Direction, sequencing, individual skill, and
organizational culture modify effectiveness
Politics occur when employees convert power into
action

Organizational Politics:
Activities not required as part of one’s formal role in
the organization, but that influence, or attempt to
influence, the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages within the organization
◦ Outside of job requirements
◦ Requires the use of power
 Based on sticking to the implied rules

 Legitimate:
◦ Normal everyday politics – complaining

 Illegitimate:
◦ “Hardball” activities such as sabotage, whistle-
blowing, and symbolic protests
Politics arise in organizations because of:
 Conflicting interests
 Limited resources
 Ambiguity in decision making

Politicking: twisting facts to support one’s

own goals and interests
 Traits that encourage political action:
◦ High self-monitors
◦ High need for power
 Situational influences leading to illegitimate
political actions:
◦ Lower organizational investment
◦ Greater the number of perceived alternatives
◦ Greater expectations of success
 Organizational resources declining or
distribution shifting
 Opportunity for promotion exists
 Organizational culture issues:
◦ Low trust
◦ Role ambiguity
◦ Zero-sum reward allocation
◦ High performance pressures
◦ Leading by poor example
For those unwilling to play, or with modest
political skills, the outcomes are negative
◦ Moderated by individual’s understanding of who
makes decisions and why they were selected
◦ When perceived as a threat, people respond with
defensive behaviors
 The process by which individuals attempt to
control the impression others form of them
 People may misrepresent themselves in
situations of high uncertainty or ambiguity
 Misrepresentations may discredit the
individuals – seen as insincere or
manipulative.
 Interviews
◦ Self-promotion and ingratiation work well

 Performance Evaluations
◦ Ingratiation positively related
◦ Self-promotion is negatively related
 Questions to consider:

1. What is the utility of engaging in the

behavior?
2. How does the utility of engaging in
the political behavior balance out any
harm it will do to others?
3. Does the political activity conform to
standards of equity and justice?
Perception of Politics:
 Negative consequences are common

Preference for Power Tactics:

 Differences exist consistent with cultural values

Effectiveness of Power Tactics:

 Little evidence for differences
Power can be increased by:
◦ Increasing the dependence of
others
◦ Gaining unique knowledge or
skills
◦ Minimizing one’s own
dependence
◦ Acquiring useful bases of
power
◦ Using effective power tactics
◦ Avoiding coercion
 Informal, expert, and referent power are
the most important
 Use consultation and inspirational
appeals
 IM techniques effectiveness depends on
the setting
1. Defined power and contrasted leadership and
power.
2. Contrasted the five bases of power.
3. Identified nine power or influence tactics and
their contingencies.
4. Identified the causes and consequences of
political behavior.
5. Applied impression management techniques.
6. Showed the influence of culture on the uses
and perceptions of politics.
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