Solid mechanics

 Define the terms  Calculate stresses in deposited thin films using the disk
 Stress method
 Deformation
 Strain
 Thermal strain
 Thermal expansion coefficient
 Appropriately relate various types of stress to the correct
corresponding strain using elastic theory
 Give qualitative descriptions of how intrinsic stress can
form within thin films
 Calculate biaxial stress resulting from thermal mismatch
in the deposition of thin films
Why?

Solid mechanics...

Why?
Why?
Why?

Why is this thing bent?

Thermal actuator produced by Southwest Research Institute

And these?
A bi-layer of TiNi and SiO2. (From Wang, 2004)
 Why?

Membrane is piezoresistive;
i.e., the electrical resistance
changes with deformation.

Adapted from MEMS: A Practical Guide to Design, Analysis, and Applications,

Ed. Jan G. Korvink and Oliver Paul, Springer, 2006

A simple piezoelectric actuator design: An applied voltage causes

stress in the piezoelectric thin film stress causing the membrane to
bend
Why?

Hot arm actuator

+
e How much does it move
i Zap it with a voltage here…
- here?

+
e ω
-
Joule heating leads to different
rates of thermal expansion, in
turn causing stress and
deflection.
 Stress and strain

A = w·t
t
P P
w
w

L δ

P δ
P Normal stress ε=— Normal strain
σ=—=— L
A wt

Dimensions Typical units Dimensions Typical units

[F ] [F ] N [L ]
   Pa  (dimensionless) μ-strain = 10-6
[A ] [L ]2 m 2 [L ]
 Elasticity

How are stress and strain related to each other?

P
X fracture

F = kx
plastic (permanent)
deformation X fracture
σ E σ= E ε
L elastic (permanent)
deformation brittle
ductile
E Young’s modulus
(Modulus of elasticity,
Elastic modulus)
δ
ε
P
Elasticity

Strain in one direction causes strain in other directions

εy = -ν εx

Poisson’s ratio
 Stress generalized

Stress is a surface phenomenon.

z
σz

τzy ΣF = 0, ΣMo = 0
τzx
τyz τxy = τyx
τxz
σy
τyz = τzy
τxy τyx τzx = τxz
σx y

σ : normal stress τ : shear stress

x Force is normal to surface Force is parallel to surface
σx  stress normal to x-surface τxy  stress on x-surface in y-direction
 Strain generalized

Essentially, strain is just differential deformation.

Δy + dΔy
Δy Deforms

Δx
Δx + dΔx
Break into two pieces:
dux
ux ux + dx

= dy + θ2
duy Shear strain is strain with
no volume change.
dx θ1

uniaxial strain shear strain

u: displacement
 du x du y 
  1   2 
du x
x   xy   
dx  dy dx 
Relation of shear stress to shear strain

Just as normal stress causes

uniaxial (normal) strain, shear
stress causes shear strain. dux
τyx

τxy = G γxy τxy τxy θ2

duy
τyx θ1
shear modulus

• Si sabes cualquiera dos de E,

E G, y ν, sabes el tercer.
G
2(1  ) • Limits on ν:
Magic Algebra Box
0 < ν < 0.5

ν = 0.5 
incompressible
Generalized stress-strain relations

The previous stress/strain relations hold for

either pure uniaxial stress or pure shear
stress. Most real deformations, however, are Deforms
complicated combinations of both, and
these relations do not hold

x y z
εx = [ ] + [ -ν ] + [ -ν ] τxy = G γxy
E E E

x normal x normal x normal

strain due to x strain due to y strain due to z
normal stress normal stress normal stress
Generalized Hooke’s Law

For a general 3-D deformation of an isotropic material, then

εx =
1
E
 
 x   y   z  γxy =
1
 xy
G

εy =
1
E
 
 y   z   x  γyz =
1
 yz
G

εz =
1
E
 
 z   x   y  γzx =
1
 zx
G

Generalized Hooke’s Law

 Special cases
• Uniaxial stress/strain

σ = Eε

• No shear stress, todos esfuerzos normales son iguales volume strain

σx = σy = σz = σ = K•(ΔV/V)

bulk modulus

• Biaxial stress
Stress in a plane, los dos esfuerzos normales son iguales

σx = σy = σ = [E / (1 - ν)] • ε

biaxial modulus
Elasticity for a crystalline silicon

The previous equations are for isotropic materials. Is crystalline silicon isotropic?

E  Cij Compliance coefficients

 xx   C11 C12 C12

13 C014  C 0x15 C016    x 
        
 yy   C12 21 C11
22 C12
23 C024  C0y25 C026   y 
 zz  C12 C12 C11 C034  C 0z35 C036    z 
     
31 32 33

 xyxy   C041 C042 C043 C44 C0xy45 C046   xy 

 xzxz   C0 C0 C053 C054 Cxz55  C056   xz 
   51 52
  
44
  
 yzyz   C061 C062 C063 C064 C0yz65   yz 
44 
C66

For crystalline silicon

C11 = 166 GPa, C12 = 64 GPa and C44 = 80 GPa
 Te toca a ti

Assuming that elastic theory holds, choose the appropriate modulus and/or stress-strain relationship for each of the following
situations.

1. A monkey is hanging on a rope, causing it to stretch. How do you model the deformation/stress-strain in the rope?
Uniaxial stress/strain
2. A water balloon is being filled with water. How do you model the deformation/stress-strain in the balloon membrane?
Biaxial stress/strain
3. A nail is hammered into a piece of plywood. How do you model the deformation/stress-strain in the nail?
Uniaxial stress/strain
4. A microparticle is suspended in a liquid for use in a microfluidic application, causing it to compress slightly. How do you
model the deformation/stress-strain in the microparticle?
Use bulk modulus (no shear, all three normal stresses the same)
5. A thin film is deposited on a much thicker silicon wafer. How do you model the deformation/stress-strain in the thin film?
Biaxial stress/strain
6. A thin film is deposited on a much thicker silicon wafer. How do you model the deformation/stress-strain in the wafer?
Anisotropic stress/strain (Using Cij  compliance coefficients)
7. A thin film is deposited on a much thicker glass substrate. How do you model the deformation/stress-strain in the glass
substrate?
Generalized Hooke’s Law. I.e., ε = (1/E)(σx – ν(σy + σz)) etc.
Thermal strain

Thermal Expansion

Most things expand upon heating, and shrink upon cooling.

δ(T) = αT (T-T0)
Notes:
d T • αT ≈ constant ≠ f(T)
T  If no initial strain
dT
ε(T) ≈ ε(T0) + αT (T-T0)
Thermal expansion coefficient • Thermal strain tends to be the same in all
directions even when material is otherwise
anisotropic.
Solid mechanics of thin films

Adhesion

Ways to help ensure adhesion of deposited

thin films:
• Ensure cleanliness
• Increase surface roughness
• Include an oxide-forming element in
between a metal deposited on oxide

Stress in thin films

positive (+) Negative (-)

Tension Compression Tension headache
 Stress in thin films
Two types of stress

Intrinsic stress Extrinsic stress

Also known as growth stresses, these develop during as the These stresses result from externally imposed factors.
film is being formed. Thermal stress is a good example.

Doping

Sputtering
Microvoids
Gas entrapment
Polymer shrinkage
Thermal stress in thin films

Consider a thin film deposited on a substrate at a deposition

temperature, Td. (Both the film and the substrate are initially at thin film deposited at Td
Td.)

Initially the film is in a stress free state.

The film and substrate are then allowed to cool to room

temperature, Tr
substrate
Since the two materials are hooked together, they both experience
strain as they cool.
the same ____________
both cooled to Tr

εboth = εsubstrate or εfilm ?

εsubstrate = αT,s(Tr - Td) εmismmatch = αT,s(Tr - Td) - αT,f (Tr - Td)

= = (αT,f - αT,s)(Td - Tr)
εfilm = αT,f (Tr - Td) + εmismmatch
Thermal stress in thin films

How would you relate σmismatch to εmismatch? Biaxial stress/strain

σmismatch = [E / (1-ν)]·εmismatch

= [E / (1-ν)]·(αT,f - αT,s)(Td - Tr)

tension
 If αT,f > αT,s  σmismatch = (+) or (-)  Film is in ___________________.

compression
 If αT,f < αT,s  σmismatch = (+) or (-)  Film is in ___________________.

Thin film

Initially
stress free
cantilever

Sacrificial σmismatch > 0 σmismatch < 0

layer
Stress in thin films

Compression or tension? Compression or tension?

(a) (b)

(a) Stress in SiO2/Al cantilevers (b) Stress in SiO2/Ti cantilevers

[From Fang and Lo, (2000)]

αT,Al >, <, = αT,SiO2 ? αT,Ti >, <, = αT,SiO2 ?

Stress in thin films

How were these fabricated?

(a) (b)

(a) Stress in SiO2/Al cantilevers (b) Stress in SiO2/Ti cantilevers

[From Fang and Lo, (2000)]
Te toca a ti

Show that the biaxial modulus is given by

E/(1 – ν)

Pistas:
• Remember what the assumptions for “biaxial” are.
• In thin films you can always find one set of x-y axes for which there is only σ and no τ.
 Measuring thin film stress

The disk method Assumptions:

 The film thickness is uniform and small compared to the
wafer thickness.
 The stress in the thin film is biaxial and uniform across it’s
Stressed wafer (after thin film) thickness.
 Ths stress in the wafer is equi-biaxial (biaxial at any location in
the thickness).
 The wafer is unbowed before the addition of the thin film.
 Wafer properties are isotropic in the direction normal to the
film.
 The wafer isn’t rigidly attached to anything when the
R deflection measurement is made.
Unstressed wafer
(before thin film)
E T 2
 
radius of curvature ,
1  6Rt
R = _________________________

wafer thickness
T = _________________________ and Biaxial modulus strain at wafer/film
thin film thickness of the wafer interface
t = _________________________.