Materials and Processes

Materials and Processes

1. Nature & Property of 5. Plastics & Composites

Materials 6. Determining Material
2. Solid State Changes in Properties
Metals 7. Loads & Material
3. Ferrous Metals & Their Responses
Properties 8. Manufacturing Methods
4. Nonferrous Metals & & Discontinuities
Their Properties 9. In Service Behavior of
Materials
1.0 Nature and Properties of Materials

1.1 States of Matter

1.2 Atoms and Molecules

1.3 Crystalline Structures

1.4 Solidification
 1.1 States of Matter

Plasma

Temperature
Gas

Energy
Liquid
Solid
 Physical Changes

Changes of state are physical not chemical changes

Steam
Water H 2O
Ice

Chemically the same

Physically very different

Triple Point Diagram
 1.2 Atoms & Molecules

Atom: Is the smallest particle of a chemical element that

still has the properties of that chemical element.

Nucleus: Protons (positive charge)

Neutrons (neutral)

Electrons: Outside the nucleus in discrete energy bands

Negative charge
Elements
Periodic Table
 Molecules

One atom oxygen & two atoms of hydrogen

Metallic Bonds
Ionic Bonds
 Covalent Bonds

Share electrons in
outer shell.
 1.3 Crystalline Structures

Body Centered

Face Centered

Hexagonal Close Packed

 Body Centered

Chromium

Molybdenum

Vanadium

Tungsten
9 Atoms
Iron @ room
temperature
 Face Centered Aluminum

Copper

Gold

Lead

Nickel

Platinum
14 Atoms
Silver

Iron between
900º & 1400º C
 Hexagonal Close Packed

Cadmium

Cobalt

Manganese

Titanium

17 atoms Zinc
 Allotropic

A solid that can exist in more than one crystalline structure

and the process is reversible

It is this property that allows us to change the physical

properties of steel through heating and cooling
 1.4 Solidification

Casting

Lowest temperature is at the surface of the mould

Freezing starts at the surface

Starting points referred to as nuclei

Grow in a needle like fashion called dendrites

Latent Heat
Dendrites
 Grain Boundaries

Last metal to freeze

3 to 10 atoms wide

Atoms are in disarray

Area of highest stress

Much different properties

than the rest of the metal
 Grain Size

6 7 8 9

Samples of different grain size metals have been polished,

etched, and magnified.

Grain size ASTM 6 on the left and ASTM 9 on the right

The larger the number the smaller the grain size

 Liquid Solutions

A liquid solution is made up of two parts

Solute and solvent

In a cup of coffee the solvent is the liquid

Coffee and the solute is the sugar

In steel liquid iron is the

solvent and carbon is the solute
 Alloying

The intentional mixing of two or more metals or a

metal with a nonmetal

Some metals are completely soluble in one another

Such as copper and nickel

Some metals are soluble with one another to a limited

Extent. Such as lead and tin.

The highest melting point metal freezes first and the

nucleation sites are dispersed through out the liquid.
2.0 Solid State Changes of Metals

2.1 Allotropic materials

2.2 Phase Diagrams

2.3 Introduction to Heat Treatment

 2.1 Allotropic Materials

Polymorphism
The ability of a solid material to exist in more than
one crystalline structure

Allotropic
If the process of polymorphism is reversible the
material is allotropic

Iron and steel are allotropic

Iron
Iron
Iron
Iron
Iron
 2.2 Phase Diagrams

Temperature on the Y-axis (vertical axis)

Composition on the X-axis (horizontal axis)

Sometimes called an equilibrium diagram

Very slow rate of change of temperature

Iron or steel
Sometimes referred to as Iron-Carbon Diagram
Copper-Nickel Phase Diagram

1450º C

1083º C
Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
 Austenite

Exists at elevated temperatures

Face centred cubic (FCC)
Can dissolve up to 1.7% carbon
 Ferrite

Exists in 3 different regions of the diagram

Body Centered Cubic (BCC)
Relatively pure iron
Can dissolve carbon up to .008% to .025%
carbon, depending on temperature
 Solubility of Carbon

The larger spaces in the FCC allow for more carbon to dissolve
than in BCC
FCC
BCC
 Cementite

When steel changes form FCC to BCC much less carbon

can stay in solution

The carbon that segregates out becomes cementite

Cementite is nearly pure carbon

 Pearlite

Under very slow cooling conditions, the ferrite and

cementite are layered within the grain boundaries

This layering is referred to as pearlite

Pearlite x500 Pearlite x2500

Pearlite
Pearlite Plus Ferrite
Pearlite Plus Cementite
Time, Temperature, Transformation Diagram
 2.3 Introduction to Heat Treatment

Full Annealing

Normalizing

Hardening

Tempering

Stress Relief
 Full Annealing

Purpose:
Make steel soft and ductile
Reduce stresses

Heat steel to 100º F above critical temperature

Hold for 1 hour per inch of thickness

Slow cool, usually in furnace

 Normalizing

Purpose:
Reduce stresses, usually after welding
Greater hardness & tensile strength than
full annealing

Heat steel to 100º F above critical temperature

Hold for 1 hour per inch of thickness

Cool in still air

 Hardening

Purpose:
Increase hardness and tensile strength

Heat to eliminate all ferrite

Quench to form martensite

Water, brine, oil, or gas

 Tempering

Purpose:
Usually follows hardening to reduce hardness
and improve ductility, allowing some of the carbon
trapped as martensite to diffuse out.

Heat below the transformation temperature

 Stress Relief

Purpose:
Provides dimensional stability
Softens martensitic areas
Improves fracture resistance

Heat slowly to about 625º C

Hold for a period of time

Slowly cool
3.0 Ferrous Metals and Their Properties

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Wrought Iron

3.3 Cast Iron

3.4 Carbon and Low Alloy Steel

3.5 Specialty Steels and Heat Resistant Alloys

3.6 Making of Ferrous Metals

 3.1 Introduction

Ferrous metals contain iron

Grouped as:

Wrought irons

Cast Irons

Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Specialty steels and Heat resistant alloys

 3.2 Wrought Iron

Consists of high purity iron and slag

Slag consists of iron silicate

No bond between iron and slag

Very fibrous

Barbed wire, standard pipe, architectural purposes

 3.3 Cast Irons

Four variables:

Carbon content (2 to 6.67 %)

Alloy and impurity content
Cooling rate during and after freezing
Heat treatment

Six basic groups of cast irons

White cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Gray cast iron
Chilled cast iron
Nodular cast iron
Alloy cast iron
 White Cast Iron

Dendrites of pearlite in cementite

Very hard and brittle, not easily machined

Good wear resistance

Limited engineering use

 Malleable Cast Iron

Made from white cast iron using a two

stage annealing process producing
irregular shaped nodules called temper
carbon.

Railroad equipment, general hardware, chain hoist

assemblies

Carbon: 2.00 to 2.65 %

Silicon: .90 to 1.40 %
 Gray Cast Iron

Carbon between 1.7 and 4 %

Silicon between 1 and 3 %

Structure determined by the cooling rate

Counter weights, machine bases, gear and pump housings

ASTM A48
 Chilled Cast Iron

White cast iron layer with a gray cast iron

Interior

Produced by pouring gray cast iron against

a graphite chiller

Railway wheels, sprockets and heavy

duty machine parts
 Nodular Cast Iron

Also known as ductile iron

Higher strength and toughness than gray iron

Hoist drums, tractor parts, wrenches, etc.

Carbon: 3.2 to 4.10 %

Silicon: 1.8 to 2.8 %
Small amounts of magnesium or cerium to
form nodules
 Alloy Cast Iron

Chromium
Copper
Molybdenum
Vanadium
Nickel

Used to modify physical or mechanical properties

 Alloy Cast Iron

Chromium

Less than 1% to improve mechanical properties

Up to 35% to improve high temperature and

corrosion properties

ASTM A 532-82
27% Chromium
Excellent resistance to abrasion and
Impact, resists corrosion and erosion
 Alloy Cast Iron

Copper

 
Between .25% and 2.5%
Breaks up cementite and strengthens the casting
                                                                       

Engine components
 Alloy Cast Iron

Molybdenum
Improves mechanical properties
Improves fatigue strength, heat resistance and hardness

Mo: .8 to 1.3%
Piston Rings
 Alloy Cast Iron

Vanadium
Significant carbide former
Improves strength, hardness and wear resistance
.10 to .25%
 Alloy Cast Iron

Nickel
Graphitizer
With chromium to improve abrasion resistance
14 to 38% to improve tensile strength and hardness

High nickel cast

iron seal
 3.4 Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Plain carbon steel consists of iron and carbon up to 1.8%

Low carbon steel .01% to .30%

Medium carbon steel .30 to .60%

High carbon steel .60 to 1.8%

Mn .40 to 1.5%
Si
S
 Low Carbon Steel

1 to 30 points of carbon

Automotive body panels

Structural plate
Structural sections
Wire products
 Medium Carbon Steel

30 to 60 points of carbon

Couplings
Shafts
Axles
 High Carbon Steel

60 to 180 points of carbon

Springs
High strength wire
 Low Alloy Steel

Alloy content from 2.07 to 10%

High strength structural steel

High strength low alloy steel

Dual phase steel

Ultrahigh strength steel

Maraging steel
 High Strength Structural Steel

Yield strengths greater than 275 MPa (40 ksi)

Available as: Cold rolled structural shapes

Hot rolled carbon manganese steel sheet, plate,
bar, structural shapes
Heat treated as plate and bar

ASTM: A529, A537, A570, A612, A662, A678, A738

 High Strength Low Alloy Structural Steel

Small amounts of alloying

Yield strengths greater than 275 MPa (40 ksi)

Available as: Strip, sheet, bar, plate, structural shapes

Usually sold as hot rolled

Easily weldable

ASTM A242, A572, A588, A606, A607, A714, A715, A874, A871
 Dual Phase Steels

Microstructure of ferrite with small islands of carbon martensite

Low yield strength, high rate of hardening

Good formability, high strength

 Ultrahigh Strength Steels

Yield strengths higher than 1380 MPa (200 ksi)

Available as: billet, bar, rod, forgings, sheet, plate, castings

Used for: connecting rods, cylinders, gears and bushings

AISI 4130, 4140, 4340, 6150, 8640

 Maraging Steels

Hardening of this steel does not involve carbon

Term from “martensitic age hardening”

Yield strengths from 1030 to 2420 MPa (150 to 350 ksi)

Excellent weldability, can be machined when annealed,

twice the corrosion resistance of conventional steels

Standard grades: 18NI (200) and 18NI (350)

Carbon and Low Alloy Steels

Common specifications:

SAE-AISI

ASTM

ASME

UNS

CSA
 SAE- AISI

Society of Automotive Engineers

AISI No. Alloying (%)

10xx None
11xx .08 to .33 S
13xx 1.8 to 2.0 Mn
23xx 3.5 Ni
31xx .7 to .8 Cr, 1.3 Ni
41xx .5 to 1.0 Cr, .2 to .3 Mo Last two digits xx are
43xx .5 to .8 Cr, 1.8 Ni, .3 Mo Points of carbon
51xx .8 to 1.1 Cr
61xx .8 to 1.0 Cr, .1 to .2 V
86xx .6 Ni, .5 to .7 Cr, 1.2 Mo
87xx .6 Ni, .5 Cr, .3 Mo
 ASTM

ASTM is one of the world’s largest organizations for the

preparation of voluntary standards

They have a significant number of materials specifications

One example is ASTM A36 which covers “carbon steel

shapes, plates, and bars of structural quality for use in
riveted, bolted and welded construction of bridges and
buildings for general structural purposes”
 ASME

ASME prepares standards for pressure and nuclear vessels

and a wide variety of other mechanical equipment.

ASME adopt some of the ASTM standards, when the do they

place an S in front of the standard designation.

ASME adopted ASTM A36 which becomes ASME SA36

 UNS

Unified Numbering System

The UNS System is not a specification system but rather a

way of determining similar metals world wide.

It was started by SAE and ASTM in 1967 and includes 18

groups of metals

The numbers are now being incorporated into ASTM and

other standard systems
•Axxxxx - Aluminum Alloys
•Cxxxxx - Copper Alloys, including Brass and Bronze
•Fxxxxx - Iron, including Ductile Irons and Cast Irons
•Gxxxxx - Carbon and Alloy Steels
•Hxxxxx - Steels - AISI H Steels
•Kxxxxx - Steels, including Maraging, Stainless, Iron-Base Superalloys
•L5xxxx - Lead Alloys, including Babbit Alloys and Solders
•M1xxxx - Magnesium Alloys
•Nxxxxx - Nickel Alloys
•Rxxxxx - Refractory Alloys
•R03xxx- Molybdenum Alloys
•R04xxx- Niobium (Columbium) Alloys
•R3xxxx- Cobalt Alloys
•R5xxxx- Titanium Alloys
•R6xxxx- Zirconium Alloys
•Sxxxxx - Stainless Steels, including Precipitation Hardening and Iron-
Based Superalloys
•Txxxxx - Tool Steels
•Zxxxxx - Zinc Alloys
 CSA

CSA G40.20 and G40.21 deal with structural materials

G40.20 deals with general requirements

G40.21 deals with details of individual steels

3.5 Specialty and Heat Resistant Steels

Tool steels

Powder Metallurgy Steels

Austenitic Manganese Steels

Stainless Steels

Superalloys
 Tools Steels

Any steel used to make tools for cutting and forming

Originally high carbon steels

Many complex highly alloyed steels

Tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, manganese, chromium

13 different classes of of tool steels

AISI A, D, H, M, O, S, L, P, or W and 1 digit

 Powder Metallurgy Steels

Alloying including carbon up to 2%

Chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium, cobalt, sulphur

Specified by AISI (American Iron Steel Institute)

SAE (Society for Automotive Engineers)
MPIF (Metal Powder Industries Federation)
 Austenitic Manganese Steels

Originally called Hadfield’s Steel

Carbon 1.2%, Manganese 12%, now many minor modifications

Earth moving equipment, dredging and well drilling, hammers

used in the recycling of automobiles, tank track pads,
military purposes
 Stainless Steels

Martensitic

Ferritic

Austenitic

Duplex (ferritic-austenitic)

Precipitation hardening
 Martensitic Stainless Steel

An alloy of carbon and chromium

BCC

Ferromagnetic, poor weldability because of carbon

Can be hardened by heat treatment

Corrosion resistant in mild environments

403, 410, 414, 416, 422, 440

Cutlery, surgical instruments and fasteners

 Ferritic Stainless Steel

Chromium in the range of 10 to 30%

Some grades contain molybdenum, silicon, aluminum, titanium

Ferromagnetic, non-hardenable

Good ductility, relatively poor high temperature properties

405, 409, 429, 430, 434, 436

Automotive exhaust systems, sinks, architectural trim

 Austenitic Stainless Steel

FCC, nonmagnetic

Excellent corrosion, cryogenic and high temperature properties

Chromium 16 to 26%, Nickel up to 35%, Manganese to 1.5%

Excellent weldability

Hardened by cold working not by heat treatment

201, 302, 304, 309, 316, 317, 348

Food and chemical processing equipment

 Duplex Stainless Steel

Mixed structure of BCC and FCC

Nickel 4.5 to 8%, chromium 18 to 28%, molybdenum 2.5 to 4%

Corrosion resistance similar to austenitic stainless steel

Superior tensile and yield strengths

Improved resistance to stress corrosion cracking

Good weldability and formability

329
 Precipitation Hardening Stainless Steel

Chromium nickel and precipitation hardening elements

such as copper, aluminum, titanium

Usually higher strengths

15-5PH, 17-4PH, 17-7PH

 Super Alloys

Heat resisting alloys

Nickel, Nickel-iron, cobalt

Gas turbine components

Hastelloy, Inconel, Nimonic

3.6 Making of Ferrous Metals
Steel Making at Sydney Steel
 Blast Furnace

Inputs:
Iron oxide (pellet or sinter)
Coke
Limestone
Hot air

Outputs:
Pig iron (4.4% carbon)
Slag
Gases
 Basic Oxygen Furnace

Inputs:
Pig iron
Oxygen
30% scrap
Fluxes
Alloys

Basic is used a descriptor for

the lining, i.e. basic not acidic.
Continuous Cast
Hot Rolling