Elementary Statistics

1-1 A Step by Step Approach

Sixth Edition

by
Allan G. Bluman

SLIDES PREPARED
BY
LLOYD R. JAISINGH
MOREHEAD STATE UNIVERSITY
MOREHEAD KY

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1-2

Topic 1
Chapter One: The Nature of
Probability and Statistics

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1-3
Outline

 1-1 Introduction
 1-2 Descriptive and Inferential
Statistics
 1-3 Variables and Types of Data
 1-4 Data Collection and
Sampling Techniques
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1-4
Outline

 1-5 Observational and

experimental studies

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1-5
Objectives

 Demonstrate knowledge of all

statistical terms.
 Differentiate between the two
branches of statistics.
 Identify types of data.

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1-6
Objectives

 Identify the measurement level

for each variable.
 Identify the four basic sampling
techniques.

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1-7
Objectives

 Explain the importance of

computers and calculators in
statistics.

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1-8
1-1 Introduction

 Statistics consists of conducting

studies to collect, organize,
summarize, analyze, and draw
conclusions.

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 1-2 Descriptive and Inferential
1-9
Statistics

 Data are the values

(measurements or observations)
that the variables can assume.
 Variables whose values are
determined by chance are called
random variables.

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 1-2 Descriptive and Inferential
1-10
Statistics

 A collection of data values forms

a data set.
 Each value in the data set is
called a data value or a datum.

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 1-2 Descriptive and Inferential
1-11
Statistics

 Descriptive statistics consists of

the collection, organization,
summation, and presentation of
data.

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 1-2 Descriptive and Inferential
1-12
Statistics

 A population consists of all

subjects (human or otherwise) that
are being studied.
 A sample is a subgroup of the
population.

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 1-2 Descriptive and Inferential
1-13
Statistics

 Inferential statistics consists of

generalizing from samples to
populations, performing
hypothesis testing, determining
relationships among variables, and
making predictions.

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1-14
Example: Attendance & Grades

 A study conducted at Manatee Community

College revealed that students who attended
class 95% to 100% of the time usually
received an A in the class. Students who
attended class 80% to 90% of the time
usually received a B or C in the class.
Students who attended class less than 80% of
the time usually received a D or an F or
eventually withdrew from the class.

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1-15
Example: Attendance & Grades
Answer the following questions:
1. What are the variable under study?
2. What are the data in the study?
3. Are descriptive, inferential, or both types of
statistics used?
4. What is the population under study?
5. Was a sample collected? If so, from where?
6. From the information given, comment on the
relationship between the variables.

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1-3 Variables and Types of Data

 Qualitative variables are variables

that can be placed into distinct
categories, according to some
characteristic or attribute. For
example, gender (male or female).

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1-3 Variables and Types of Data

 Quantitative variables are

numerical in nature and can be
ordered or ranked. Example: age
is numerical and the values can be
ranked.

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1-18
1-3 Variables and Types of Data

 Discrete variables assume values

that can be counted.
 Continuous variables can assume
all values between any two
specific values. They are obtained
by measuring.
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Classification of Variables
Data

Qualitative Quantitative

Discrete Continuous

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1-3 Variables and Types of Data

 The nominal level of measurement

classifies data into mutually
exclusive (non-overlapping),
exhausting categories in which no
order or ranking can be imposed on
the data.

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1-3 Variables and Types of Data

 The ordinal level of measurement

classifies data into categories that
can be ranked; precise differences
between the ranks do not exist.

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1-3 Variables and Types of Data

 The interval level of measurement

ranks data; precise differences
between units of measure do exist;
there is no meaningful zero.

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1-3 Variables and Types of Data

 The ratio level of measurement

possesses all the characteristics of
interval measurement, and there
exists a true zero. In addition, true
ratios exist for the same variable.

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1-24
Examples of Measurement Scale

Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Zip code Grade Exam score Height
Gender Rating scale IQ exam Weight
Eye color Ranking of Temperature Age
tennis
players
Nationality Salary
Major field
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1-25
Example: Transportation Safety
The chart shows the number of job-related injuries for
each of the transportation industries for 1998.

Industry Number of Injuries

Railroad 4520
Intercity bus 5100
Subway 6850
Trucking 7144
Airline 9950

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1-26
Example: Transportation Safety

Answer the following questions:

1. What are the variable under study?
2. Categorize each variable as quantitative or
qualitative.
3. Categorize each quantitative variable as
discrete or continuous.
4. Identify the level of measurement for each
variable.

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 1-4 Data Collection and Sampling
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Techniques

 Data can be collected in a variety of ways.

 One of the most common methods is
through the use of surveys.
 Surveys can be done by using a variety of
methods -
 Examples are telephone, mail
questionnaires, personal interviews,
surveying records and direct
observations.
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 1-4 Data Collection and Sampling
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Techniques

 To obtain samples that are unbiased,

statisticians use four methods of
sampling.
 Random samples are selected by
using chance methods or random
numbers.

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1-29
Example
 A lottery draw is a good example of
simple random sampling. A sample of
6 numbers is randomly generated
from a population of 45, with each
number having an equal chance of
being selected.

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 1-4 Data Collection and Sampling
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Techniques

 Systematic samples are obtained by

numbering each value in the
population and then selecting the kth
value.

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1-31
Example
 If a systematic sample of 500 students were to be
carried out in a university with an enrolled population
of 10,000, the sampling interval would be:
 I = N/n = 10,000/500 =20
 All students would be assigned sequential numbers.
The starting point would be chosen by selecting a
random number between 1 and 20. If this number
was 9, then the 9th student on the list of students
would be selected along with every following 20th
student. The sample of students would be those
corresponding to student numbers 9, 29, 49, 69,
........ 9929, 9949, 9969 and 9989.

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 1-4 Data Collection and Sampling
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Techniques

 Stratified samples are selected by

dividing the population into groups
(strata) according to some
characteristic and then taking
samples from each group.

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1-33
Example
 The committee of a company of 1,000 employees
wishes to assess any reaction to the re-
introduction of security system into the company.
To ensure a representative sample of employees
from all departments, the committee uses the
stratified sampling technique.
In this case the strata are the departments. Within
each strata the committee selects a sample. So, in
a sample of 100 employees, all departments
would be included. The employees in the sample
would be selected using simple random sampling
or systematic sampling within each strata
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 1-4 Data Collection and Sampling
1-34
Techniques

 Cluster samples are selected by

dividing the population into groups
and then taking samples of the
groups.

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1-35
Example
 Suppose an organization wishes to find out
which lung cancer treatment doctors are
recommending in across Malaysia. It would be
too costly and take too long to survey every
doctor, or even some doctors from every
hospital. Instead, 100 hospitals are randomly
selected from all over Malaysia.
These hospitals are considered to be clusters.
Then, every doctor in these 100 hospitals is
surveyed. In effect, doctors in the sample of
100 hospitals represent all doctors in
Malaysia. © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000
1-36
Cluster vs. Stratified

 Cluster sampling is different from

stratified random sampling, because
in the latter sampling technique, some
units are selected from each group.

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 1-5 Observational and Experimental
1-37
Studies

 In an observational study, the

researcher merely observes what is
happening or what has happened in the
past and tries to draw conclusions
based on these observations.

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 1-5 Observational and Experimental
1-38
Studies

 In an experimental study, the

researcher manipulates one of the
variables and tries to determine how
the manipulation influences other
variables.

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 1-5 Observational and Experimental
1-39
Studies

 The independent variable (explanatory

variable) in an experimental study is
the one that is being manipulated by
the researcher.
 The resultant variable is called the
dependent variable (outcome variable).

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 1-5 Observational and Experimental
1-40
Studies

 A confounding variable is one that

influences the dependent or outcome
variable but cannot be separated from
the independent variable.

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 Example: Observational or
1-41
Experimental Study?

(a) Subjects were randomly assigned to two

groups, and one group was given an herb
and the other group a placebo. After 6
months, the numbers of respiratory tract
infections each group had were
compared.
Experimental Study

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 Example: Observational or
1-42
Experimental Study?

(b) A researcher stood at a busy intersection

to see if the color of the automobile that a
person drives is related to running red
lights.

Observational Study

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 Example: Observational or
1-43
Experimental Study?

(c) A researcher finds that people who are

more hostile have higher total cholesterol
levels than those who are less hostile.

Observational Study

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 Example: Observational or
1-44
Experimental Study?

(d) Subjects are randomly assigned to four

groups. Each group is placed on one of
four special diets – a low-fat diet, a high-
fish diet, a combination of low-fat diet
and high-fish diet, and a regular diet.
After 6 months, the blood pressures of the
groups are compared to see if diet has any
effect on blood pressure.
Experimental Study © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000