PROPERTIES OF ANIMAL TOXINS

• PROPERTIES OF ANIMAL TOXINS

• Venoms are very complex, containing polypeptides, high- and lowmolecular-
weight proteins, amines, lipids, steroids, aminopolysaccharides,quinones,
glucosides, and free amino acids, as well as serotonin, histamine, and other
substances.
• Some venoms may consist of more than a hundred proteins. The venom is a
source of millions of peptides and proteins that act on myriad exogenous targets
such as ion channels, receptors, and enzymes within cells and on the cell
membrane (M´enez et al., 2006).
• The venom is important for several reasons:
1. the venom is a source of tools with which to study complex physiologic systems,
such as the cardiovascular system, nervous system, coagulation, and homeostasis.
2. the venom is a source of potential new drugs, with at least five agents already on
the market and dozens undergoing preclinical or clinical
ARACHNIDA
• Scorpions
• The bark scorpion, Centruroides exilicauda, is often found
hiding under the loose bark of trees or in dead trees or logs,
and may frequent human dwellings. Straw to yellowish-brown
or reddish-brown in color, it is often easily distinguishable from
other scorpions in the same habitat by its long, thin telson, or tail,
and its thin pedipalps, or pincer-like claws
Spiders
• All spiders except the Uloboridae family possess a venom
apparatus that produces neurotoxins designed to paralyze or kill
prey.
• Spider venoms are complex mixtures of low-molecular-weight
components,including inorganic ions and salts, free acids,
glucose-free amino acids, biogenic amines and neuro-
transmitters, and polypeptide toxins.
Agelenopsis Species (American
Funnel Web Spiders)
• The American funnel web spider (Agelenopsis aperta) contains
three
classes of agatoxins that target ion channels (Adams, 2004).
The α-agatoxins appear to be use-dependent, noncompetitive
antagonists of the glutamate receptor channels. These are low-
molecularweight acylpolyamines that are devoid of amino acids.
Mass spectrometry analysis has identified more than 33 α-
agatoxins in A. aperta venom (Chesnov et al., 2001).
Latrodectus Species (Widow Spiders)
• The latrotoxins, a family of high-molecular-weight proteins that
are found in Latrodectus venoms, target different classes of
animals including vertebrates, insects, and crustaceans
(Grishin, 1998;1999; Ushkaryov et al., 2004).
• The toxins are synthesized as large precursors containing
around 1000 amino acid residues (around 132–156 kDa) that
undergo proteolytic processing to 110–130 kDa and activation
in the lumen of the venom gland. Mature latrotoxins are
structurally conserved and contain multiple ankyrin repeats.
Steatoda Species
• These spiders are variously known as the false black widow,
combfooted, cobweb, or cupboard spiders.
• The female of Steatoda grossa differs from L. mactans and
Latrodectus hesperus in having a purplish-brown abdomen
rather than a black one. It is less shiny, and its abdomen is
more oval than round. It may have pale yellow or whitish
markings on the dorsum of the abdomen, and no markings on
the venter. The abdomen of some species is orange, brown, or
chestnut in color, and often bears a light band across the
anterior dorsum (Russell, 2001).
Cheiracanthium Species (Running
Spiders)
• The 160 species of this genus have an almost circumglobal distribution,
although only four or five species have been implicated in bites on humans
(Russell, 2001). Cheiracanthium punctorium, Cheiracanthium inclusum,
• Cheiracanthium mildei, Cheiracanthium diversum, and heiracanthium
japonicum are often implicated in envenomations.
• The abdomen is convex and egg shaped and varies in color from
yellow,green, or greenish-white to reddish-brown; the cephalothorax is
usually slightly darker than the abdomen. The chelicerae are strong, and
the legs are long, hairy, and delicate. The spider ranges in length from 7 to
16 mm. Like Phidippus but even more so, Cheiracanthium tends to be
tenacious and sometimes must be removed from the bite area. For that
reason there is a high degree of identification following the bite of these
spiders. The most toxic venom fraction is said to be a protein of 60 kDa,
and the venom is high in norepinephrine and serotonin.
Theraphosidae Species (Tarantulas)
• Tarantula venoms have been extensively studied, and modern
purification often uses orthogonal HPLC separations that
combine reversed-phase and ion-exchange chromatography.
• Most spider peptide toxins appear to have basic pI in the 9–11
range (Escoubas et al., 2000). Mass spectrometry techniques
including electrospray ionization,matrix-assisted laser
desorption-ionization (MALDI), and MALDI coupled to time-of-
flight analysis have been extensively used for venom
characterization. At least 33 peptide toxins have been described
from various tarantula venoms.
Ticks
• Tick saliva contains a number of active constituents (Steen et al.,
2006). For example, saliva from Ixodes scapularis contains apyrase
(ATP-diphosphohydrolase), which hydrolyzes ADP that is released at
the bite site thereby inhibiting ADP-induced platelet aggregation
(Mans et al., 1998), kininase (ACE-like protein or angiotensin-
converting enzyme-like protein), which hydrolyzes circulating kinins
and reduces the host inflammatory response (Francischetti et al.,
2003); glutathione peroxidase (Das et al.,2001); serine protease
inhibitors, which inhibit coagulation enzymes (Valenzuela, 2004); an
anticomplement protein that inhibits an enzyme in the alternative
pathway for complement (Valenzuela et al.,2000); an amine-binding
protein that binds serotonin, histamine, and other biogenic amines
(Sangamnetdej et al., 2002); and prostanoids (PGE and PGF
2 2α

(Inokuma et al., 1994). A discussion of toxins from other species may

be found elsewhere (Cavassani et al., 2005;Steen et al., 2006).
CHILOPODA (CENTIPEDES)
• Centipede venoms contain high-molecular-weight
proteins,proteinases, esterases, 5-hydroxytryptamine,
histamine, lipids, and polysaccharides (Mebs, 2002). Such
venom contains a heat-labile cardiotoxic protein of 60 kDa that
produces, in humans, changes associated with acetylcholine
release (Gomes et al., 1983).
INSECTA
• Heteroptera (True Bugs)
• The clinically most important of the true bugs are the
Reduviidae (the reduviids): the kissing bug, assassin bug,
wheel bug, or conenose bug of the genus Triatoma (Russell,
2001). Generally, they are parasites of rodents and common in
the nests of wood rat or in wood piles. These are elongated
bugs with freely movable, cone-shaped heads, and straight
beaks. The most commonly involved species appear to be
Triatoma protracta, Triatoma rubida, Triatoma magista,
• Reduvius personatus, and Arilus cristatus.
Hymenoptera (Ants, Bees,Wasps, and
Hornets)
• Formicidae (Ants)
• Apidae (Bees)
• The venom contains biologically active peptides, such as
melittin,apamine, mast cell-degranulating peptide, and others,
as well as phospholipases A and B, hyaluronidase, histamine,
2

dopamine,monosaccharides, and lipids (Mebs, 2002).

REPTILES
• General Information and Classification
• Snake Venoms These venoms are complex mixtures: proteins
and peptides, consisting of both enzymatic and nonenzymatic
compounds,make up over 90% of the dry weight of the venom
(Phui Yee et al., 2004). Snake venoms also contain inorganic
cations such as sodium, calcium, potassium, magnesium, and
small amounts of zinc, iron, cobalt, manganese, and nickel.