Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Airfoil Description
Chord Line
Pressure Forces acting on the Airfoil
Low Pressure
High velocity
High Pressure
Low velocity
Bernoulli’s equation says where pressure is high, velocity will be low and vice versa.
Characteristics of Cl vs. a
Stall
Cl
Slope= 2p if a is in radians.
a = a0
Angle of
zero lift
Cl
a = a0 Symmetric Airfoil
Angle of
zero lift
• Types of Drag
– Induced: Caused by the Production of Lift
– Parasite: All Drag Not Caused by Lift
• Profile: Parasitic Drag of Rotor Blades Passing
Through the Air
D 2 V 2 SC D
1
• Drag Equation
Vertical
Component
Opposes Direction of Blade of Airflow
Acts Parallel Rotation in Tip Path Plane Drawn
& Opposite Through the
to Resultant Rotor System
Relative
Wind
Induced Flow through Rotor
How does a real helicopter fly
Helicopter flies by accelerating column
of air downwards through the rotor.
Control Volume
Consider a
control
volume of 2
V+v2
flow 3 V+v3
enclosing Disk area A Velocity across
the disk
rotor disk
Velocity down
4 stream
V+v4
Total area S
13
Flows through Control Volume
14
Conservation of Mass through the Rotor
Disk
Flow through the rotor disk =
m AV v 2 AV v3
A4 V v 4
Thus v2=v3=vi
There is no velocity jump across the rotor disk
The quantity vi is called
induced velocity at the rotor
disk
Global Conservation of Momentum
Momentum inflow through t op V 2 S
Momentum inflow through t he side m 1V
A 4 v 4V
Momentum outflow through bottom
S - A 4 V 2 V v 4 2 A4
Pressure is atmospheri c on all
the far field boundaries .
Thrust , T Momentum rate out -
Momentum Rate in
T A 4 (V v 4 ) v 4 m v 4
Mass flow rate through the rotor disk times
Excess velocity between stations 1 and 4
Conservation of Momentum at the Rotor Disk
3 2 2
v4
p3 p2 V v4
2
v4
4 V+v4 T A p3 p2 AV v4
2
Thrust equals mass flow rate through the rotor disk times excess
velocity between stations 1 and 4
T AV vi v 4 Thus, vi = v4/2
Induced Velocities
V The excess velocity in the
Far wake is twice the induced
Velocity at the rotor disk.
V+vi
To accommodate this excess
Velocity, the stream tube
has to contract.
V+2vi
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Induced Velocity at the Rotor Disk
Induced velocity at the rotor disk can be
computed in terms of the rotor thrust
Non-dimensional v 1 T CT
form of induced i
velocity R R 2 A 2
Ideal Power Consumed by the Rotor
m V 2v m V 2
1 2 1
2 2
2m vV v T V v
V
V
2
T
T
2 2 2 A
T
In hover, ideal power T
2 A
Observations from Momentum Theory
28
Effects of Tip Losses
A portion of the rotor near the tip
does not produce much lift
Due to leakage of air from
The bottom of the disk to the top.
One can crudely account for it by
using a smaller, modified radius
BR, where B is given by
2CT b = Number
B 1 of blades.
b
1 1 CT
Power Consumption in Hover
Including Tip Losses..
CP CT
FM B 2
Non-dimensionalization of Rotor Forces
Thrust, Torque and Torque are usually expressed in
non-dimensional form .
P
Power Coefficient C Q = CQ
AR 3
Non Dimensional Rotor Parameters
Solidity factor
Disk Loading
The ratio T/A is called disk loading.
Disk Loading
Helicopters 5 to 10 lb/m2
Tilt Rotors 20 to 40 lb/m2 Less efficient in hover
Vtol aircraft 500 lb/m2 Small fans
Power Loading
The ratio of thrust to power T/P
is called the Power Loading.
Power Loading
Helicopter 6 to 10 lb/HP High
Tilt Rotors 2 to 6 lb/HP Low
VTOL 2 lb/HP Lowest
Momentum theory advantages and dis-
advantages
• Momentum theory gives • It does not take into
rapid, back-of-the- account
envelope estimates of • Number of blades
Power. • Airfoil characteristics
• This approach is (lift, drag, angle of
sufficient to size a rotor zero lift)
(i.e. select the disk area) • Blade planform (taper,
for a given power plant sweep, root cut-out)
(engine), and a given
gross weight. • Blade twist
distribution
• This approach is not
adequate for designing • Compressibility
the rotor. effects
Typical Blade Strip
Tip
Power b dP
Cut Out
Flow over Airfoil Section of the strip
V v Line of Zero Lift
arctan
r
aeffective = q
q
V+v
r
1
L U T2 U P2 cCl dr
2 UT= wr
1 UP= V+v
D U T2 U P2 cCd dr
2
These forces will act normal to and along
the resultant velocity vector.
Resolution of Forces on aerofoil Section
The elemental forces are
T L resolved normal and inplane
(plane of rotation) directions
Fx
V+v
r D
U T2 U P2 cCl cos Cd sin dr
1
2
Fx D cos L sin
U T2 U P2 cCd cos Cl sin dr
1
2
dP U T Fx rFX
Blade Element Theory
Blade Element Theory
• Blade Element Theory rectifies
many of the drawbacks of the
momentum theory. First
proposed by Drzwiecki in 1892.
• It is a “strip” theory. The blade is
divided into a number of strips, of
width r.
• The lift generated by that strip,
and the power consumed by that
strip, are computed using 2-D
airfoil aerodynamics.
• The contributions from all the
strips from all the blades are
summed up to get total thrust,
and total power.
Unedited_slides
Closed form Solutions
r R
1 V v 2
Rotor Thrust cba q
2
r dr
2 r 0
r r
r R
1 V v V v 3
Rotor Power cba q
3
Cd r dr
2 r 0
r r r r
Thrust of Rotor with Linearly Twisted Blade
Assume that the blade pitch angle varies as q E Fr
b 1 3 V v 3
Thrust T ca E FR
2
R
2 3 4 2 R
q .75 R
ca R R
b
/ 2
2
2 3
abc q .75 a q .75 R
CT
2pR 3 / 2 2 3 / 2
where
solidity BladeArea/ DiskArea bc / pR
a Lift Curve slope (~ 2p ) , b number of blades
V v
Inflow Ratio
R
Thrust dependence on Pitch
Notice that the thrust coefficient is linearly proportional to the
pitch angle q at the 75% Radius.
C d 0
C P CT
8
Induced Power Profile Power
Ideally Twisted Rotor
q tip R
q
r
a
CT q tip
4
Cd 0
C P CT Same as linearly
8 Twisted rotor!
Figure of Merit from Blade Element Theory
CT
FM ;
CT Cd 0 / 8
where Inflow Ratio (V v)/ R;
Solidity Blade Area/Disk Area
an optimum lift 0
2 6
coefficient.
T bc Cl Cl
Assume the rotor is CT
untapered. pR R pR 6
2 2
6
CT
Cl 6
Generally rotor will stall if average lift coefficient
exceeds 1.2 . Thus, in practice, CT/σ is limited to 0.2 .
Optimum Lift Coefficient in Hover
CT CT
In Hover FM ; ; C T Cl / 6
Cd 0 2
CT
8
3/ 2
C T
2 1
FM
CT3 / 2 Cd 0 1 (3 3Cd 0 / C l )
3/ 2
2 8
Cd 0
C P CT where 1.15
8
Flap, Lag, and Feathering
There are three potential applications for the Flex Pivot in an
articulated rotor. Currently, bearings are being utilized in the
following locations, as denoted by the circles in Figure 1.
AF
Omega
CF
K IF
Beta
n, y
e
Force Equation
The forces acting on the blades of a fully articulated
hub include:
• Inertia Force, IF
• Centrifugal Force, CF
• Aerodynamic Force, AF
• Spring Moment, SF
After analyzing these various forces, it was determined
that the bulk of the forces on the blade comes from
the centrifugal force, expressed by the following
force equation:
• F=ma, where a=Rω2
In a helicopter, you can move in any direction or you can rotate 360 degrees
The swash plate assembly consists of two plates -- the fixed and the rotating swash plates
shown above in blue and red, respectively.
•The rotating swash plate rotates with the drive shaft (green) and the rotor's blades (grey)
because of the links (purple) that connect the rotating plate to the drive shaft.
•The pitch control rods (orange) allow the rotating swash plate to change the pitch of the
rotor blades.
•The angle of the fixed swash plate is changed by the control rods (yellow) attached to the
fixed swash plate.
•The fixed plate's control rods are affected by the pilot's input to the cyclic and collective
controls.
•The fixed and rotating swash plates are connected with a set of bearings between the two
plates. These bearings allow the rotating swash plate to spin on top of the fixed swash plate.
Paul Cornu (1907)
First man to fly in helicopter mode..
© L. Sankar Helicopter
105
Aerodynamics
De La Cierva
invented Autogyros (1923)
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Cierva introduced hinges at the root
that allowed blades to freely flap
Hinges
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Ways of countering the
Reactive Torque
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Single Rotor Helicopter
© L. Sankar Helicopter
111
Aerodynamics
Tandem Rotors (Chinook)
© L. Sankar Helicopter
112
Aerodynamics
Coaxial rotors
Kamov KA-52
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
NOTAR Helicopter
© L. Sankar Helicopter
114
Aerodynamics
NOTAR Concept
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Tilt Rotor Vehicles
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Helicopters tend to grow in size..
AH-64A AH-64D
Primary Mission Gross 15,075 lb (6838 kg) 16,027 lb (7270 kg) Lot
Weight 11,800 pounds Empty 1 Weight
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Power Plant Limitations
• Helicopters use turbo shaft engines.
• Power available is the principal factor.
• An adequate power plant is important for
carrying out the missions.
• We will look at ways of estimating power
requirements for a variety of operating
conditions.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
118
Aerodynamics
High Speed
Forward Flight Limitations
• As the forward speed increases, advancing side
experiences shock effects, retreating side stalls. This
limits thrust available.
• Vibrations go up, because of the increased dynamic
pressure, and increased harmonic content.
• Shock Noise goes up.
• Fuselage drag increases, and parasite power
consumption goes up as V3.
• We need to understand and accurately predict the
air loads in high speed forward flight.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Hover Performance
Prediction Methods
© L. Sankar Helicopter
120
Aerodynamics
Drawbacks of Momentum Theory
© L. Sankar Helicopter
121
Aerodynamics
Blade Element Theory
• Blade Element Theory rectifies many of these
drawbacks. First proposed by Drzwiecki in 1892.
• It is a “strip” theory. The blade is divided into a
number of strips, of width r.
• The lift generated by that strip, and the power
consumed by that strip, are computed using 2-D
airfoil aerodynamics.
• The contributions from all the strips from all the
blades are summed up to get total thrust, and total
power.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Approximate Expressions
• The integration (or summation of forces) can
only be done numerically.
• A spreadsheet may be designed. A sample
spreadsheet is being provided as part of the
course notes.
• In some simple cases, analytical expressions
may be obtained.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Example
(From Leishman)
• Gross Weight = 16,000lb
• Main rotor radius = 27 ft
• Tail rotor radius 5.5 ft
• Chord=1.7 ft (main), Tail rotor chord=0.8 ft
• No. of blades =4 (Main rotor), 4 (tail rotor)
• Tip speed= 725 ft/s (main), 685 ft/s (tail)
• K=1.15, Cd0=0.008
• Available HP =3000Transmission losses=10%
• Estimate hover ceiling (as density altitude)
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Step I
• Multiply 3000 HP by 550 ft.lb/sec.
• Divide this by 1.10 to account for available power to
the two rotors (10% transmission loss).
• We will use non-dimensional form of power into
dimensional forms, as shown below:
• P= Tv+ (R)3A [Cd0/8]
• Find an empirical fit for variation of with altitude:
4.2553
0.00198h
1
sealevel 288.16
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Step 2
• Assume an altitude, h. Compute density, .
• Do the following for main rotor:
– Find main rotor area A
– Find v as [T/(2A)]1/2 Note T= Vehicle weight in lbf.
– Insert supplied values of , Cd0, W to find main rotor P.
– Divide this power by angular velocity W to get main rotor torque.
– Divide this by the distance between the two rotor shafts to get tail
rotor thrust.
• Now that the tail rotor thrust is known, find tail rotor power
in the same way as the main rotor.
• Add main rotor and tail rotor powers. Compare with
available power from step 1.
• Increase altitude, until required power = available power.
• Answer = 10,500 ft
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Hover Performance
Prediction Methods
III. Combined Blade Element-Momentum
(BEM) Theory
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Background
• Blade Element Theory has a number of
assumptions.
• The biggest (and worst) assumption is that
the inflow is uniform.
• In reality, the inflow is non-uniform.
• It may be shown from variational calculus that
uniform inflow yields the lowest induced
power consumption.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Consider an Annulus of the rotor Disk
Area = 2prdr
dr
Mass flow rate =2prV+vdr
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Blade Elements Captured by the Annulus
dT b r c Cl dr
1 2
2
r
2 V v
abc r q
1
dr
2 r
© L. Sankar Helicopter
130
Aerodynamics
Equate the Thrust for the Elements
from the
Momentum and Blade Element
Approaches
a a r
c q 0
2
8 8 R
a r a c
2
a c
where, q
V 16 2 8 R 16 2
c
R
V v
Total Inflow Velocity from Combined
R Blade Element-Momentum Theory
© L. Sankar Helicopter
131
Aerodynamics
Numerical Implementation of Combined
BEM Theory
• The numerical implementation is identical to
classical blade element theory.
• The only difference is the inflow is no longer
uniform. It is computed using the formula
given earlier, reproduced below:
a c a r a c
2
q
16 2 8 R 16 2
Note that inflow is uniform if q= CR/r . This twist is therefore
called the ideal twist. © L. Sankar Helicopter
132
Aerodynamics
Effect of Inflow on Power in Hover
R R
Pinduced vdT 4 prv 3 dr
0 0
R R
T dT 4 prv 2 dr constraint
0 0
R
p 2 v vdr 0
2
4 r 3 v
0
The only way t he integral will vanish for all possible variation s v is if 3v 2 2 v 0
Since is a contant (Lagrangea n multiplier ), it follows that v must be a constant.
Uniform inflow produces least induced power, for a specified level of thrust!
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Ideal Rotor vs. Optimum Rotor
• Ideal rotor has a non-linear twist: q= CR/r
• This rotor will, according to the BEM theory, have a uniform
inflow, and the lowest induced power possible.
• The rotor blade will have very high local pitch angles q near
the root, which may cause the rotor to stall.
• Ideally Twisted rotor is also hard to manufacture.
• For these reasons, helicopter designers strive for optimum
rotors that minimize total power, and maximize figure of
merit.
• This is done by a combination of twist, and taper, and the use
of low drag airfoil sections.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Optimum Rotor
• We try to minimize total power (Induced power + Profile
Power) for a given T.
• In other words, an optimum rotor has the maximum figure
of merit.
• From earlier work (see slide 72), figure of merit is
3
maximized if Cl 2 is maximized.
Cd
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Variation of Chord for the Optimum Rotor
dT b r c Cl dr
1 2
2
dT = (Mass flow rate) * (twice the induced velocity at the annulus)
= 4pr(v)vdr
It follows that
bc 8v 2 1 Const
r 2
pR RCl r r
Local solidity
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Planform of Optimum Rotor
Root
Cut out Chord is proportional to 1/r
Tip
r=R r
Such planforms and twist distributions are hard to manufacture, and are optimum
only at one thrust setting.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
139
Aerodynamics
Prandtl’s Tip Loss Model
Prandtl suggests that we multiply the sectional inflow by
a function F, which goes to zero at the tip, and unity in the interior.
F
p
2
arcCos e f
b 1 r
f
2
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Incorporation of Tip Loss Model in BEM
dT =
r = 4prF(V+v)vdr
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Resulting Inflow (Hover)
a a r a
2
q
16 F 8F R 16 F
a 32 F r
1 q 1
16 F a R
© L. Sankar Helicopter
142
Aerodynamics
Hover Performance
Prediction Methods
IV. Vortex Theory
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
BACKGROUND
• Extension of Prandtl’s Lifting Line Theory
• Uses a combination of
– Kutta-Joukowski Theorem
– Biot-Savart Law
– Empirical Prescribed Wake or Free Wake Representation of Tip
Vortices and Inner Wake
• Robin Gray proposed the prescribed wake model in 1952.
• Landgrebe generalzied Gray’s model with extensive
experimental data.
• Vortex theory was the extensively used in the 1970s and
1980s for rotor performance calculations, and is slowly giving
way to CFD methods.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Background (Continued)
• Vortex theory addresses some of the drawbacks of
combined blade element-momentum theory
methods, at high thrust settings (high CT/).
• At these settings, the inflow velocity is affected by
the contraction of the wake.
• Near the tip, there can be an upward directed inflow
(rather than downward directed) due to this
contraction, which increases the tip loading, and
alters the tip power consumption.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Kutta-Joukowsky Theorem
G : Bound Circulation surrounding
T
the airfoil section.
T (r) G
Fx= (V+v) G
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Representation of
Bound and Trailing Vorticies
Rv
R
Rv 0.707 R
2
v 2v
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Radial Contraction
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Aerodynamics
Vertical Descent Rate
Zv
v
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Landgrebe’s Curve Fit for
Tip Vortex Descent Rate
zV 2p
k1 V 0 V
R b
zV 2p 2p 2p
k1 k 2 V V
R b b b
CT
k1 0.25 0.001q twist,degrees
k 2 CT 0.01 CT q twist,degrees
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Tip Vortex Representation in
Computational Analyses
© L. Sankar Helicopter
154
Aerodynamics
Tip Vortex Representation
Control Points on the Lifting Line where induced flow is calculated
Lifting Line
15
degrees
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Biot-Savart Law
Control Point
r2
r1
Segment
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Biot-Savart Law (Continued)
r1 r2 1 r1 r2
G
r1 r2 r1 2
r
Vinduced 2 2 2 2
4p r1r2 r1 r2 rc r1 r2 2r1 r2
2
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Overview of Vortex Theory Based
Computations (Code supplied)
• Compute inflow using BEM first, using Biot-Savart law during
subsequent iterations.
• Compute radial distribution of Loads.
• Convert these loads into circulation strengths. Compute the
peak circulation strength. This is the strength of the tip vortex.
• Assume a prescribed vortex trajectory.
• Discard the induced velocities from BEM, use induced
velocities from Biot-Savart law.
• Repeat until everything converges. During each iteration,
adjust the blade pitch angle (trim it) if CT computed is too
small or too large, compared to the supplied value.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Free Wake Models
• These models remove the need for empirical
prescription of the tip vortex structure.
• We march in time, starting with an initial guess for
the wake.
• The end points of the segments are allowed to freely
move in space, convected the self-induced velocity at
these end points.
• Their positions are updated at the end of each time
step.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Free Wake Trajectories
(Calculations by Leishman)
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Vertical Descent of Rotors
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Background
• We now discuss vertical descent operations, with
and without power.
• Accurate prediction of performance is not done. (The
engine selection is done for hover or climb
considerations. Descent requires less power than
these more demanding conditions).
• Discussions are qualitative.
• We may use momentum theory to guide the analysis.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Phase I: Power Needed in
Climb and Hover
Power
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Momentum Theory gives incorrect
Estimates of Power in Descent
(V+v)/vh
P T V v
V V
2
T
T 0
2 2 2 A
Descent Climb
V/vh
No matter how fast we descend, positive power is
still required if we use the above formula.
This is incorrect!
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
The reason..
V is down
V is up
V+v is down
V+v is down
V is down
V+2v is down V is down
V is up V is up
V+2v is down
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Vortex Ring State
(V is up, V+v is down, V+2v is down)
The rotor pushes tip vortices down.
© L. Sankar
Can only
Aerodynamics be empirically analyzed.
Helicopter
168
Performance in Vortex Ring State
Experimental data
Has scatter
V/vh
Cross-over
At V=-1.71vh
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Turbulent Wake State
(V is up, V+v is up, V+2v is down)
V+v is up
Rotor looks and behaves like a bluff
Body (or disk). The vortices look
Like wake behind the bluff body.
Turbulent V/vh
Wake State Cross-over
At V=-1.71vh
Notice power is –ve
Engine need not supply power
© L. Sankar
Aerodynamics
Helicopter
171
Wind Mill Brake State
(V is up, V+v is up, V+2v is up)
V+v is up
Flow is well behaved.
V is up T = - 2Av(V+v)
V+2v
V is up
up Notice the minus sign. This is because
v (down) and V+v (up) have opposite signs.
© L. Sankar The product must be positive..
Helicopter
172
Aerodynamics
Power is Extracted in
Wind Mill Brake State
We can solve the equation :
T -2Av(V v)
to get
2
V V T
v
2 2 2 A
P T (V v)
Sign convention :
V 0 is climb, V 0 is descent
P 0 means power is consumed
P 0 means power is extracted.
In this case, power is extracted
from the freestream , as in a wind mill.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Physical Mechanism for Wind Mill Power
Extraction
Lift
V+v
r
The airfoil experiences an induced thrust, rather than
induced drag!
This causes the rotor to rotate without any need for
supplying power or torque. This is called autorotation.
Pilots can take advantage
© L. Sankar
of this if Helicopter
power is lost.
174
Aerodynamics
Complete Performance Map
Descent Power/TVh Climb
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Background
• Blades are usually hinged near the root, to alleviate
high bending moments at the root.
• This allows the blades t flap up and down.
• Aerodynamic forces cause the blades to flap up.
• Centrifugal forces causes the blades to flap down.
• In hover, an equilibrium position is achieved, where
the net moments at the hinge due to the opposing
forces (aerodynamic and centrifugal) cancel out and
go to zero.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Schematic of Forces and Moments
dL
r
dCentrifugal
Force
0
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Moment at the Hinge due to
Aerodynamic Forces
From blade element theory, the lift force dL =
1
2
2 2
c r v Cl dr cr Cl dr
1
2
2
2
Integrating over all such strips,
Total counterclockwise moment =
r R
r 0 2 cr rCl dr
1 2
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Moment due to Centrifugal Forces
The centrifugal force acting on this strip = r
2
dm
2 rdm
r
Where “dm” is the mass of this strip.
This force acts horizontally.
The moment arm = r sin0 ~ r 0
Clockwise moment due to centrifugal forces = 2 r 2 0 dm
0
2 2 2
r 0 dm I
r 0
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
At equilibrium..
r R
I 0 cr rCl dr
2 1 2
r 0
2
rR
1
r 0 2 Cl dr acR 4
3
cr r R 3
r r
0
I
I r 0 R a effectived R
Lock Number, g
© L. Sankar Helicopter
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Aerodynamics
Lock Number, g
• The quantity g=acR4/I is called the Lock number.
• It is a measure of the balance between the aerodynamic
forces and inertial forces on the rotor.
• In general g has a value between 8 and 10 for articulated
rotors (i.e. rotors with flapping and lead-lag hinges).
• It has a value between 5 and 7 for hingeless rotors.
• We will later discuss optimum values of Lock number.
© L. Sankar Helicopter
183
Aerodynamics
Chapter 4
Rotating Blade Motion
Yanjie Li
Harbin Institute Of Technology
Shenzhen Graduate School
Outline
• Blade motions
• Types of rotors
• Equilibrium about the flapping hinge
• Equilibrium about the lead-lag hinge
• Equation of motion for a flapping blade
• Dynamics of blade flapping with a hinge offset
• Blade feathering and the swashplate
• Dynamics of a lagging blade with a hinge offset
• Coupled flap-lag motion and pitch-flap motion
• Other types of rotors
• Rotor trim
4.1 Rotating Blade Motion
3 blade motions
• flapping
– balance asymmetries in
forward flight
• lead-lag
– balance Coriolis forces
• feathering
– change pitch – change
collective thrust
– cyclic: pitch, roll control
4.2 Types of Rotors
4.3 Equilibrium about the Flapping Hinge
• balance of aerodynamic, centrifugal forces
– flapping (conning) angle
Centrifugal Force (CF)
Moment at the
rotational axis by CF
Aerodynamic moment about the flap hinge:
Lag moment
From geometry:
Centrifugal moment:
Inertial moment:
Aerodynamic
moment:
M>0,
clockwise,
reducing
Define mass moment of inertia about the flap hinge
For uniform inflow
UT y
In forward flight, the blade flapping motion can be represented as infinite Fourier series
Fourier coefficient
Assume: uniform inflow, linearly twisted blades, can
M be founded analytically
Substituting UT ,Uin
P Section 3.5
Two
options:
Assume the solution for the blade flapping motion to be given by the first harmonics only:
We have
Notice by setting
Hinge at eR
Forces
inertia
centrifugal
aerodynamic
Moment balance
Mass moment of
inertia Non-dimensional flap frequency
Analogy with a spring-mass-damper system:
undamped natural frequency
1/ rev
Flapping equation
Blade pitch
where
Offset = eR
A wrong typo
Taking moments about the lag hinge:
Moment of inertia about the lag hinge Lag frequency with a hinge offset
where
where
4.12 Coupled Pitch-Flap Motion
Pitch-flap coupling using a hinge to reduce cyclic flapping
Used to avoid a lead-lag hinge, save weight
Achieved by placing the pitch link/pitch horn connection to lie off the flap hinge axis
Flapping by , pitch angle is reduced by
Eq. 4.39
Equivalent hinge offset and flap stiffness can be found by looking at the slope at a
point at 75% of the radius
• Trim
– calculation of rotor control settings, rotor disk orientation(pitch, flap) &
overall helicopter orientation for the prescribed flight conditions
• Controls
– Collective pitch
• increases all pitch angles change thrust
– Lateral & Longitudinal cyclic pitch
• Lateral ( ) tilts rotor disk left & right
• Longitudinal ( ) tilts rotor disk forward & aft
– Yaw
• use tail rotor thrust
cross coupling is possible, flight control system can minimize cross-coupling effects
4.14.1 Equations for Free-Flight Trim
Moments can be written in terms of the contribution from different parts
where hub plane (HP) is used as reference and flight path angle is
Assume: No sideslip (fuselage side force ) ;no contribution from horizontal and
vertical tails
vertical force equilibrium
Torque
Thrust = average blade lift number of blades
Assume ; ;
rotor torque, side force, drag force & moments can be computed similarly
The vehicle equilibrium equations, along with the inflow equations, can be written as