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Data structure
The logical and mathematical model of a particular organization of

data is called Data structure. The main characteristics of a data
structure are:
• Contains component data items which may be atomic or another
data structure
• A set of operations on one or more of the component items
• Defines rules as to how components relate to each other and to the
structure as a whole
The choice of a particular data structure depends on following
consideration:
• It must be rich enough in structure to mirror actual relationships of
data in real world for example the hierarchical relationship of the
entities is best described by the “tree” data structure.
• The structure should be simple enough that one can effectively
process the data when necessary.
The various data structures are divided into following categories:
• Linear data structure- A data structure whose elements form a
sequence, and every element in structure has a unique predecessor
and a unique successor. Examples of linear data structure are:
• Arrays
• Linked Lists
• Stacks
• Queues
• Non-Linear data structures- A data structure whose elements do not
form a sequence. There is no unique predecessor or unique successor.
Examples of non linear data structures are trees and graphs.
• Linear Data Structures
• Arrays- An array is a list of finite number of elements of same data

type. The individual elements of an array are accessed using an index
or indices to the array. Depending on number of indices required to
access an individual element of an array, array can be classified as:
• One-dimensional array or linear array that requires only one
index to access an individual element of an array
• Two dimensional array that requires two indices to access an

individual element of array
• The arrays for which we need two or more indices are known
as multidimensional array.
• Linked List-
• Linear collection of data elements called nodes

• Each node consists of two parts; data part and pointer or link
part
• Nodes are connected by pointer links.
• The whole list is accessed via a pointer to the first node of the
list
• Subsequent nodes are accessed via the link-pointer member of
the current node
• Link pointer in the last node is set to null to mark the list’s end
– Use a linked list instead of an array when
• You have an unpredictable number of data elements (dynamic
memory allocation possible)
• Your list needs to be sorted quickly
• Diagram of two data nodes linked together
15 10
Data member
and pointer NULL pointer (points to nothing)
struct node {
int data;
struct node *nextPtr;
}
• nextPtr
– Points to an object of type node
– Referred to as a link
• Ties one node to another node
• Types of linked lists:
– Singly linked list
• Begins with a pointer to the first node
• Terminates with a null pointer
• Only traversed in one direction
– Circular, singly linked
• Pointer in the last node points back to the first node
– Doubly linked list
• Two “start pointers” – first element and last element
• Each node has a forward pointer and a backward pointer
• Allows traversals both forwards and backwards
– Circular, doubly linked list
• Forward pointer of the last node points to the first node and backward
pointer of the first node points to the last node
– Header Linked List
• Linked list contains a header node that contains information regarding
complete linked list.
• Stacks-A stack, also called last-in-first-out (LIFO) system, is a linear
list in which insertions (push operation) and deletions (pop operations)
can take place only at one end, called the top of stack .
– Similar to a pile of dishes
– Bottom of stack indicated by a link member to NULL
– Constrained version of a linked list
• The two operations on stack are:
push
– Adds a new node to the top of the stack
pop
– Removes a node from the top
– Stores the popped value
– Returns true if pop was successful
• Queues- A queue, also called a First-in-First-out (FIFO) system, is a
linear list in which insertions can take place at one end of the list,
called the rear of the list and deletions can take place only from other
end , called the front of the list.
• Similar to a supermarket checkout line
• Insert and remove operations
• Tree- A tree is a non-linear data structure that represents a hierarchical
relationship between various elements. The top node of a tree is called
the root node and each subsequent node is called the child node of the
root. Each node can have one or more than one child nodes. A tree that
can have any number of child nodes is called a general tree. If there is
an maximum number N of successors for a node in a tree, then the tree
is called an N-ary tree. In particular a binary (2-ary) tree is a tree in
which each node has either 0, 1, or 2 successors.
• Binary trees
– Binary tree can be empty without any node whereas a general tree
cannot be empty.
– All nodes contain two links
• None, one, or both of which may be NULL
– The root node is the first node in a tree.
– Each link in the root node refers to a child
– A node with no children is called a leaf node
Diagram of a binary tree
A D
C
• Binary search tree
– A type of binary treee
– Values in left subtree less than parent
– Values in right subtree greater than parent
– Facilitates duplicate elimination
– Fast searches, maximum of log n comparisons
47
25 77
11 43 65 93
7 17 31 44 68
• Graph- A graph, G , is an ordered set (V,E) where V represent set of
elements called nodes or vertices in graph terminology and E
represent the edges between these elements. This data structure is
used to represent relationship between pairs of elements which are not
necessarily hierarchical in nature. Usually there is no distinguished
`first' or `last' nodes. Graph may or may not have cycles
Algorithms
• A finite set of steps that specify a sequence of operations to be carried
out in order to solve a specific problem is called an algorithm
Properties of Algorithms:
1. Finiteness- Algorithm must terminate in finite number of steps
2. Absence of Ambiguity-Each step must be clear and unambiguous
3. Feasibility-Each step must be simple enough that it can be easily
translated into the required language
4. Input-These are zero or more values which are externally supplied to
the algorithm
5. Output-At least one value is produced
Conventions Used for Algorithms
• Identifying number-Each algorithm is assigned as identification
number
• Comments-Each step may contain a comment in brackets which
indicate the main purpose of the step
• Assignment statement-Assignment statement will use colon-equal
notation
– Set max:= DATA[1]
• Input/Output- Data may be input from user by means of a read
statement
– Read: Variable names
• Similarly, messages placed in quotation marks, and data in variables
may be output by means of a write statement:
– Write: messages or variable names
• Selection Logic or conditional flow-
– If condition, then:
– [end of if structure]
• Double alternative
– If condition, then
– Else:
– [End of if structure]
• Multiple Alternatives
– If condition, then:
– Else if condition2, then:
– Else if condition3, then
– Else:
– [End of if structure]
• Iteration Logic
• Repeat- for loop

– Repeat for k=r to s by t:
– [End of Loop]
• Repeat-While Loop
– Repeat while condition:
– [End of loop]
Algorithm complexity
• An algorithm is a sequence of steps to solve a problem. There can be more
than one algorithm to solve a particular problem and some of these
solutions may be more efficient than others. The efficiency of an algorithm
is determined in terms of utilization of two resources, time of execution
and memory. This efficiency analysis of an algorithm is called complexity
analysis, and it is a very important and widely-studied subject in computer
science. Performance requirements are usually more critical than memory
requirements. Thus in general, the algorithms are analyzed on the basis of
performance requirements i.e running time efficiency.
• Specifically complexity analysis is used in determining how resource
requirements of an algorithm grow in relation to the size of input. The
input can be any type of data. The analyst has to decide which property of
the input should be measured; the best choice is the property that most
significantly affects the efficiency-factor we are trying to analyze. Most
commonly, we measure one of the following :
– the number of additions, multiplications etc. (for numerical algorithms).
– the number of comparisons (for searching, sorting)
– the number of data moves (assignment statements)
.
Based on the type of resource variation studied, there are two types of
complexities
• Time complexity
• Space complexity
Space Complexity- The space complexity of an algorithm is amount of
memory it needs to run to completion. The space needed by a program
consists of following components:
• Instruction space-space needed to store the executable version of program
and is fixed.
• Data space-space needed to store all constants, variable values and has
further two components:
– Space required by constants and simple variables. This space is fixed.
– Space needed by fixed sized structured variable such as arrays and
structures.
– Dynamically allocated space. This space usually varies.
• Environment stack space- Space needed to store information needed to
resume the suspended functions. Each time a function is invoked
following information is saved on environment stack
– Return address i.e from where it has to resume after completion of the
called function
– Values of all local variables and values of formal parameters in
function being invoked.
Time complexity- Time complexity of an algorithm is amount of time it
needs to run to completion. To measure time complexity, key operations
are identified in a program and are counted till program completes its
execution. Time taken for various key operations are:
• Execution of one of the following operations takes time 1:
1. assignment operation
2. single I/O operations
3. single Boolean operations, numeric comparisons
4. single arithmetic operations
5. function return
6. array index operations, pointer dereferences
• Running time of a selection statement (if, switch) is the time for the
condition evaluation + the maximum of the running times for the
individual clauses in the selection.
• Loop execution time is the number of times the loop body is

executed + time for the loop check and update operations, + time for
the loop setup.
† Always assume that the loop executes the maximum number of
iterations possible
• Running time of a function call is 1 for setup + the time for any
parameter calculations + the time required for the execution of the
function body.
Expressing Space and time complexity: Big ‘O’ notation
• It is very difficult to practically analyze the variation of time

requirements of an algorithm with variation in size of input. A better
approach to express space/time complexity is in the form of a function
f (n) where n is the input size for a given instance of problem being
solved.
Efficiency (algorithm A) = a function F of some property of A's input.
• We have to decide which property of the input we are going to
measure; the best choice is the property that most significantly affects
the efficiency-factor we are trying to analyze. For example, the time
taken to sort a list is invariably a function of the length of the list. The
speed of an algorithm varies with the number of items n.
• The most important notation used for expressing this function f(n) is
Big O notation.
• Big O notation is a characterization scheme that allows to measure the
properties of algorithm such as performance and/or memory
requirements in general fashion. big ‘O’ notation
• Uses the dominant term of the function
• Omits lower order terms and coefficient of dominant
Apart from n (size of input), efficiency measure will depend on
three cases which will decide number of operations to be performed.
• Best- Case performance under ideal condition
• Worst-case performance under most un favorable condition
• Average case performance under most probable condition.
Big ‘O’ notation tries to analyze each algorithm performance in
worst condition. It is the rate of increase of f(n) that is examined as a
measure of efficiency.
Rate of growth: Big O notation
• Suppose F is an algorithm and suppose n is the size of input data. Clearly,
complexity f(n) of F increases as n increases. Rate of increase of f(n) is examined
by comparing f(n) with some standard functions such as log2n, n, nlog2n, n2,n3 and 2n.
One way to compare f(n) with these standard functions is to use functional O
notation defined as follows:
• Definition: If f(n) and g(n) are functions defined on positive integers with the
property that f(n) is bounded by some multiple of g(n) for almost all n. That is,
suppose there exist a positive integer no and a positive number M such that for all n>
no we have
|f(n) | ≤ M |g(n)|
• Then we may write
f(n)=O g(n)
Which is read as f(n)(time taken for number of operations) is of the order of g(n). If
g(n)=n, it means that f(n) is a linear proportional to n. For g(n)=n2 , f(n) is
proportional to n2. Thus if an array is being sorted using an algorithm with g(n)=n2,
it will take 100 times as long to sort the array that is 10 times the size of another
array.
• Based on Big O notation, algorithms can be categorized as
• Constant time ( O(1)) algorithms
• Logarithmic time algorithms (O(logn))
• Linear Time algorithm (O(n)
• Polynomial or quadratic time algorithm (O(nk))
• Exponential time Algorithm (O(kn))
– It can be seen that logarithmic function log(n) grows most slowly
whereas kn grows most rapidly and polynomial function nk grows in
between the two extremities. Big-O notation, concerns only the
dominant term, low-order terms and constant coefficients are
ignored in a statement. Thus if g(n) = n2+2n, the variation is taken
as O(n2) rather than O(n). Complexities of some well known
searching and sorting algorithms is:
• Linear Search: O(n) Mergesort: O(nlogn)
• Binary Search: O(logn)
• Bubble sort: O(n2)
RUNNING TIME
• let f(n) be the function that defines the time an algorithm takes for
problem size n. The exact formula for f(n) is often difficult to get. We
just need an approximation
• What kind of function is f ?
• Is it constant? linear? quadratic? ....
and, our main concern is large n. Other factors may dominate for
small n
COMPLEXITY SAMPLES
• assume different algorithms to solve a problem
• with time functions:T1(n), T2(n), T3(n), T4(n)
• plot each for a range of n
2n
10 8
n3
107
n2
Time taken
10 6
105
nlogn
104
n
10 3
logn
10 2
1 10 100 1000 10,000

Input size n
Rate of Growth of f(n) with n

Other Asymptotic notations for Complexity Analysis
The big ‘O’ notation defines the upper bound function g(n) for f(n)
which represents the time/space complexity of the algorithm on an input
characteristic n . The other such notations are:
• Omega Notation (Ω)- used when function g(n) defines the lower bound
for function f(n). It is defined as
|f(n)| ≥ M|g(n)|
• Theta Notation (Θ)- Used when function f(n) is bounded both from
above and below by the function g(n). It is defined as
c1|g(n)| ≤ |f(n)| ≤ c2.|g(n)|
Where c1 and c2 are two constants.
• Little oh Notation (o)- According to this notation,
f(n)=o g(n) iff f(n) = Og(n) and f(n)≠ Ωg(n)
• Time-Space Tradeoff- The best algorithm to solve a given problem is
one that requires less space in memory and takes less time to
complete its execution. But in practice, it is not always possible to
achieve both of these objectives. Thus, we may have to sacrifice one
at the cost of other. This is known as Time-space tradeoff among
algorithms. Thus if space is our constraint, we have to choose an
algorithm that requires less space at the cost of more execution time.
On the other hand, if time is our constraint, such as in real time
systems, we have to choose a program that takes less time to complete
execution at the cost of more space.
Various operations performed on Arrays
• Traversal- processing each element in the list
• Searching- Finding location of an element
• Insertion- Adding a new element
• Deletion- Removing an element
• Sorting-Arranging elements in some type of order
• Merging- Combining two lists into a single list

• Traversing Linear Arrays- Traversing a linear array is basically,
visiting each element of array exactly once. Traversing is usually
required to count number of elements of array or to perform other
operations on each element of array. Traversing a linear array depends
on size of array. Thus, traversal is O(n) operation for an array of size
n.
• Algorithm: (Traversing a linear Array) Here LA is a linear array
with lower bound LB and upper Bound UB. This algorithm traverses
LA applying an operation PROCESS to each element of LA
• Step 1: [Initialize Counter] Set k:=LB
• Step 2: Repeat step 3 and 4 while k<=UB Repeat for k=LB to UB:
• Step 3: [Visit Element] Apply PROCESS Apply PROCESS to
• to LA[k] LA[k]
• Step 4: [increase Counter] set k:=k+1
• [End of step 2 loop]
• Step 5: Exit
• Insertion and Deletion in an Array- Insertion refers to operation of
adding an element to an array and deletion refers to deleting an
element from an array
• Insertion- Insertion can be done at various positions but the main
cases undertaken are:
– Insertion at the start
– Insertion at the end
– Insertion in the middle
– Insertion at any other position
Inserting an element at the end of the array can be done easily
provided the memory space allocated for the array is large enough to
accommodate the additional element. For inserting at any other
position, elements of array have to be shifted downwards from the
position where insertion is to be done. The new element is then
inserted in vacated position.
• Algorithm: (Inserting into a Linear Array) INSERT(LA,N,K,ITEM)
Here LA is a linear array with N elements and K is a
positive integer such that K<=N. This algorithm inserts an
element ITEM into Kth position in LA.
• Step 1: [Initialize counter] Set J:=N
• Step 2: Repeat steps 3 and 4 while J ≥ K:
[Move Jth element downward] Set LA[J+1]:=LA[J]
[ Decrease Counter] Set J:=J -1
[End of Step 2 Loop]
• Step 3: [Insert element] Set LA[K]:=ITEM
• Step 4:[Reset N] Set N:=N+1
• Step 5: Return
• Deletion refers to the operation of removing an element from exiting
list of elements. Like insertion, deletion can be done easily from the
end of the list. However to delete an element from any other location,
the elements are to be moved upwards in order to fill up the location
vacated by the removed element.
Algorithm: (Deleting from a Linear Array) DELETE(LA,N,K,ITEM)
Here LA is a linear array with N elements and K is a
positive integer such that K<=N. This algorithm deletes an
element ITEM from Kth position in LA.
• Step 1: [Initialize counter] Set ITEM:=LA[K]
• Step 2: Repeat for J=K to N-1:
[Move J+1st element upward] Set LA[J]:=LA[J+1]
• Step 3: [Reset N] Set N:=N+1
• Step 4: Return
Analysis of Insertion and deletion operation
• The best possible case in insertion operation is when the item is
inserted at the last position. In this case, no movement of elements is
required. The worst case occurs when the element has to be inserted at
the beginning of the list. In this case, we have to move all the
elements down the list. Therefore, the while loop executes n times,
each moving one element down. Thus complexity of insertion
operation is O(n), i.e linear time.
• The best case in deletion occurs when the element to be deleted is the
last element of the array. In this case, no element is moved up. The
worst case occurs when element is deleted from the first position. In
this case, all (n-1) elements are moved up. The while loop executes n-
1 times, each time moving one element down. Thus complexity of
deletion operation is also O(n) i.e linear time.
• Algorithm: (Linear Search) LINEAR(DATA, N, ITEM, LOC)
Here DATA is a linear array with N elements and ITEM is a given
item of information. This algorithm finds the location LOC of ITEM
in DATA, or sets LOC:=0 if search is unsuccessful.
• Step 1: [Initialize Counter] Set LOC:=1
• Step 2: [Search for ITEM]
Repeat while LOC<=N:
If DATA[LOC] = ITEM, Then:
Write: ’Element is at the location’, LOC
Exit
[End of if structure]
Set LOC:=LOC+1
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: [Unsuccessful] If LOC=N+1 , then:
Set LOC:=0
• Step 4: Return
• Binary Search: Binary search is a method of searching in which array
list is divided into two equal parts. The main requirement of binary
search method is that the array has to be in sorted order. If the
elements of array list are in ascending order, then , if desired element
is less than the middle element of the list, it will never be present in
second half of the array and if desired element is greater than middle
element, it will never be present in first half of the array list. Thus
focus is given only to the desired half of the array list.
• Algorithm: BINARY(DATA, LB, UB, ITEM, LOC)
Here DATA is a sorted array with lower bound LB and
upper bound UB, and the ITEM is a given item of
information. The variables BEG, END and MID denote,
beginning, end and middle location of a segment of
elements of DATA. This algorithm finds the location LOC
of ITEM in DATA or set LOC=NULL
• Step 1: [Initialize segment variable] Set BEG:=LB, END:=UB and
MID:= INT((BEG+END)/2)
Step 2: Repeat while BEG<=END and DATA[MID]≠ITEM
If ITEM < DATA[MID], then:
Set END:= MID -1
Else:
Set BEG:= MID +1
• Step 3: Set MID:=INT((BEG+END)/2)
[End of step2 loop]
• Step 4: If DATA[MID]=ITEM, then:
Set LOC:=MID
Else :
Set LOC:=NULL
• Step 5: Return
• Analysis of Linear Search and Binary Search
• LINEAR SEARCH
• In best possible case, item may occur at first position. In this case,
search operation terminates in success with just one comparison.
However, the worst case occurs when either item is present at last
position or element is not there in the array. In former case, search
terminates in success with n comparisons. In latter case, search
terminates in failure with n comparisons. Thus in worst case, the
linear search is O(n) operation. In average case, the average number
of comparisons required o find the location of item is approximately
equal to half of the number of elements in the array.
• BINARY SEARCH
• In each iteration or in each recursive call, search is reduced to one half
of the size of array. Therefore, for n elements, there will be log2n
iterations or recursive calls. Thus complexity of binary search is
O(log2n). This complexity will be same irrespective of position of
element, even if it is not present in array.
Sorting Techniques in Array
• Bubble sort method- The bubble sort method requires n-1 passes to
sort an array where n is the size of array. In each pass, every element
of the array a[i] is compared with a[i+1] for i=0 to n-k where k is the
pass number. If a[i]>a[i+1], they are swapped. This will cause largest
element to move or bubble up.
• Algorithm: BUBBLE(DATA, N)
Here DATA is an array with N elements. This
algorithm sorts the elements in DATA.
• Step 1: Repeat step 2 and 3 for K=1 to N-1:
• Step 2: [Initialize pass pointer PTR] Set PTR:=1
• Step 3:[Execute Pass] Repeat while PTR ≤ N-K
• IF DATA[PTR] > DATA[PTR + 1], then:
Interchange DATA[PTR] and DATA[PTR + 1]
[End of If structure]
Set PTR:=PTR +1
[End of Step 3 loop]
• Step 4: Return
• Complexity analysis of Bubble sort method: Traditionally, time for
sorting an array is measured in terms of number of comparisons. The
number f(n) of comparisons in bubble sort is easily computed.
Specifically, there are n-1 comparisons during first pass, n-2
comparisons in second pass and so on.
Thus, f(n)=(n-1) +(n-2) +-------+2+1
= n(n-1)/2 = n2 / 2 – n/2
= O(n2)
Thus time required to sort an array using bubble sort method is
proportional to n2 where n is number of input items. Thus complexity
of bubble sort is O(n2)
• Selection sort method: Selection sort method requires n-1 passes to
sort an array. In first pass, find smallest element from elements
a[0],a[1],---a[n-1] and swap with first element. i.e a[0]. In second
pass, find the smallest element from a[1],a[2]----------a[n-1] and swap
with a[1] and so on.
• Algorithm: (Selection sort) SELECTION(A, N)
This algorithm sorts an array A with N elements.
• Step 1: Repeat steps 2 and 3 for k=1 to N-1
• Step 2: Set Min:=A[k] and LOC:=k
• Step 3: Repeat for j=k+1 to N:
If Min>A[j], then:
Set Min:= A[j] and LOC:=J
[End of step 3 Loop]
• Step 4: [Interchange A[k] and A[LOC]]
Set Temp:= A[k]
Set A[k]:= A[LOC]
Set A[LOC]:=Temp
• Step 5 Return
• Complexity of Selection sort method: The number f (n) of

comparisons in selection sort algorithm is independent of original
order of elements. There are n-1 comparisons during pass 1 to find the
smallest element, n-2 comparisons during pass 2 to find the second
smallest element, and so on.
• Accordingly,
• f (n)= (n-1)+(n-2)+----------------------+2+1
• = n(n-1)/2= O(n2)
• The f (n) holds the same value O(n2) both for worst case and average
case.
• Insertion sort- In this procedure of sorting, we pick up a value and
insert it at appropriate place in sorted sub list i.e during kth operation
or iteration, the element a[k] is inserted in its proper place in sorted
sub array a[1],a[2],a[3]---a[k-1]. This task is accomplished by
comparing a [k] with a[k-1],a[k-2] ------- and so on until the first
element a [j] such that a [j] ≤ a [k] is found. Then each element
a[k-1],a[k-2]--------a[j+1] are moved one position up and a [k] is
inserted in ( j+1)th position in array.
Algorithm: (Insertion sort) INSERTIONSORT(A , N)
This algorithm sorts the array A with N elements.
• Step 1: Set A[0]:= -∞
• Step 2: Repeat steps 3 to 5 for K=2 to N:
• Step 3: Set TEMP:=A[K] and PTR:=K-1
• Step 4: Repeat while TEMP <A[PTR] :
[Moves element forward] Set A[PTR + 1]:=A[PTR]
Set PTR:= PTR – 1
• Step 5:[Inserts element in proper place] Set A[PTR + 1]:= TEMP
• Step 6: Return
• Complexity of Insertion Sort
The number f(n) of comparisons in insertion sort algorithm can be
easily computed . Worst case occurs when array A is in reverse order
and inner loop must use n-1 comparisons.
f(n)=1+2+----------------n-1
=n(n-1)/2=O(n2)
In average case, there will be approximately (n-1)/2 comparisons in
inner loop
f(n)=1/2+2/2+---------------(n-1)/2=n(n-1)/4=O(n2)
• Quick Sort- Quick sort is a sorting technique that uses the idea of
divide and conquer. This algorithm finds the element, called pivot,
that partitions the array into two halves in such a way that the
elements in left sub array are less than and elements in right sub array
are greater than the partitioning element (Pivot). Then, these two sub
arrays are sorted separately in the same way by dividing them further.
The main task in quick sort is to find the element that partitions the
array into two halves and to place it at its proper location in array.
Algorithm: QUICKSORT( A, N)
This algorithm sorts an array A with N elements. LOWER and UPPER
are the two stacks maintained for storing the lower and upper indexes of list or
sublist
• Step 1:[Initialize] Set TOP:=NULL
• Step 2:[Push boundary values of A onto stacks when A has 2 or more elements]
If N > 1, then:
Set TOP:= TOP + 1, LOWER[1]:=1 and UPPER[1]:=N
• Step 3: Repeat while TOP≠ NULL
[Pop sub list from stacks]
Set BEG:=LOWER[TOP], END:=UPPER[TOP] and
TOP:=TOP-1
• Step 4: Call QUICK(A, N, BEG, END, LOC)
• Step 5: [Push left sub list onto stacks when it has 2 or more elements]
If BEG < LOC-1, then :
Set TOP:=TOP+1, LOWER[TOP]:=BEG,
UPPER[TOP]:=LOC-1
Step 6: [Push right sub list onto stacks when it has 2 or more elements]
If LOC+1 < END, then :
Set TOP:=TOP+1, LOWER[TOP]:=LOC+1,
UPPER[TOP]:=END
Step 7: Return
• Algorithm: QUICK(A, N, BEG, END, LOC)
Here A is an array with N elements. Parameters BEG and
END contain the boundary values of the sublist of A to which this
procedure applies. LOC keeps track of the position of the first element
A[BEG] of the sublist during the procedure. The local variables LEFT
and RIGHT will contain the boundary values of the list of elements
that have not been scanned.
Step 1: [Initialize]. Set LEFT:=BEG, RIGHT:=END and LOC:=BEG
Step 2: [Scan from right to left]
(a) Repeat while A[LOC] ≤ A[RIGHT] and LOC≠RIGHT:
RIGHT:=RIGHT-1
[End of Loop]
(b) If LOC=RIGHT, then: Return
(c ) If A[LOC]>A[RIGHT], then:
(i) [Interchange A[LOC] and A[RIGHT] ]
Set TEMP:=A[LOC]
Set A[LOC]:=A[RIGHT]
Set A[RIGHT]:=TEMP
(ii) Set LOC:=RIGHT
(iii) Go To Step 3
[End of If Structure]
Step 3: [Scan from left to right]

(a) Repeat while A[LEFT]≤ A[LOC] and LEFT≠ LOC:
Set LEFT:=LEFT+1
[End of Loop]
(b) If LOC=LEFT, then: Return
(c) If A[LEFT]>A[LOC], then
(i) [Interchange A[LEFT] and A[LOC] ]
Set TEMP:=A[LOC]
Set A[LOC]:=A[LEFT]
Set A[LEFT]:=TEMP
(ii) Set LOC:=LEFT
(iii) Go To Step 2
• Algorithm: Quicksort (DATA, FIRST, LAST)
This algorithm sorts the array DATA with N elements.
• Step 1: [Initialization] Set low:=FIRST and high :=LAST and
pivot:= DATA[ (low+high)/2 ][Middle element of array]
• Step 2: Repeat while low ≤ high:
• Step 3: Repeat while DATA [low] < pivot:
Set low:= low +1
[End of step 3 loop]
• Step 4: Repeat while DATA [high] > pivot:
Set high:= high -1
• Step 5: If low ≤ high, then:
Set temp:= DATA [low]
Set DATA [low]:=DATA [high]
Set DATA [high]:= temp
Set low:= low +1
Set high:= high -1
• Step 6: If first < high, then:
Quicksort (DATA, first, high)
• Step 7: If low < last, then:
Quicksort (DATA, low, last)
• Step 8: Exit
• Complexity of Quick sort algorithm- The running time of a sorting
algorithm is determined by number f(n) of comparisons required to sort n
elements. The quick sort algorithm has a worst case running time of order
O(n2) but an average case running time of O (n log n).
• The worst case occurs when the list is already sorted. Then the first
element will require n comparisons to recognize that it remains at first
position. The first sublist will be empty but the second sublist will have n-1
elements. Accordingly, second sublist will require n-1 comparisons to
recognize that it remains at the second position. And so on. Thus,
• F(n)=n+(n-1)+-------+2+1=n(n+1)/2=n2/2+O(n)=O(n2)
• The complexity n log n of average case comes from the fact that each
reduction step of algorithm produces two sub lists. Accordingly,
• Reducing the initial list places 1 element and produces two sublists
• Reducing two sublists places 2 elements and produces four sublists
• Reducing four sublists places 4 elements and produces eight sublists
• Reducing eight sublists places 8 element and produces sixteen sublists
• Thus reduction in kth level finds the location of 2k-1 elements. Hence
there will be approximately log2n levels of reduction steps. Further
each level uses atmost n comparisons Thus
• f(n)=nlogn
Merging of Arrays
• Suppose A is a sorted list with r elements and B is a sorted list with s
elements. The operation that combines the element of A and B into a
single sorted list C with n=r + s elements is called merging.
• Algorithm: Merging (A, R,B,S,C)
Here A and B be sorted arrays with R and S elements
respectively. This algorithm merges A and B into an array
C with N=R+ S elements
• Step 1: Set NA:=1, NB:=1 and NC:=1
• Step 2: Repeat while NA ≤ R and NB ≤ S:
IF A[NA] ≤ B[NB], then:
Set C[NC]:= A[NA]
Set NA:=NA +1
Else:
Set C[NC]:= B[NB]
Set NB:= NB +1
Set NC:= NC +1
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: If NA >R, then:
Repeat while NB ≤ S:
Set C[NC]:= B[NB]
Set NB:= NB+1
Set NC := NC +1
[End of Loop]
Else:
Repeat while NA ≤ R:
Set C[NC]:= A[NA]
Set NC:= NC + 1
Set NA := NA +1
[End of loop]
• Step 4: Return
• Complexity of merging: The input consists of the total number n=r+s
elements in A and B. Each comparison assigns an element to the array
C, which eventually has n elements. Accordingly, the number f(n) of
comparisons cannot exceed n:
f(n) ≤ n = O(n)
• MergeSort- Merge sort is a sorting technique in which the series is
sub divided into smaller arrays till the array is reduced to only two
elements. The smaller arrays are sorted and are recursively combined
to form the complete sorted array list. This is one of the most efficient
sorting algorithm.
• Algorithm: Mergesort (A, BEG,END)
• Step 1: If BEG < END, then:
Set MID:= (BEG +END)/2
Call Mergesort (A, BEG,MID)
Call Mergesort (A, MID+1, END)
Call Merging( A, BEG, MID, MID+1, END)
• Step 2: Return
• Algorithm: Merging (A, LB,LR,RB,RR)
This algorithm merges the elements of sub arrays in sorted
form.LB and RB are the lower bounds of sub array to be
sorted and LR and RR are the upper bounds of the
subarrays respectively
• Step 1: Set NA:=LB, NB:=RB and NC:=LB
• Step 2: Repeat while NA ≤ LR and NB ≤ RR:
IF A[NA] < A[NB], then:
Set C[NC]:= A[NA]
Set NA:=NA +1
Else:
Set C[NC]:= A[NB]
Set NB:= NB +1
Set NC:= NC +1
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: If NA >LR, then:
Repeat while NB ≤ RR:
Set C[NC]:= A[NB]
Set NB:= NB+1
Set NC := NC +1
[End of Loop]
Else:
Repeat while NA ≤ LR:
Set C[NC]:= A[NA]
Set NC:= NC + 1
Set NA := NA +1
[End of loop]
• Step 4:[Updating the original array with temporary array C]
Repeat for K:= LB to RR:
Set A[K]:=C[K]
[End of Loop]
• Step 5: Return
• Complexity of Merge-sort Algorithm- In merge sort algorithm, major
work is done in the merge procedure, which is an O(n) operation. The
merge procedure is called from merge sort procedure after the array is
divided into two halves and each half has been sorted. In each of
recursive calls, one for left half and one for right half, the array is
divided into halves, thus dividing the array into four segments. At
each level, the number of segments double. Therefore, total divisions
are log2n. Moreover each pass merges a total of n elements and thus
each pass will require at most n comparisons. Hence, for both worst
case and average case
f(n)= nlog2n= O(nlog2n)
• The only disadvantage of merge sort is that it uses an extra temporary

array, of the same size as that of input array, to merge the two halves.
The elements of temporary array are copied back to original array
before next merging.
• Radix sort: Radix sort is a technique which is usually used when large
lists of names are to be sorted alphabetically. Using this technique,
one can classify the list of names into 26 groups. The list is first
sorted on first letter of each name i.e names are arranged in 26 classes
where the first class consists of names that begin with alphabet ‘A’,
the second class consists of those names that begin with alphabet ‘B’
and so on. During second pass each class is alphabetized according to
second letter of the name and so on.
• To sort decimal numbers, where radix or base is 10, we need 10
buckets. These buckets are numbered 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Unlike,
sorting names, decimal numbers are sorted from right to left i.e first
on unit digit, then on tens digit, then on hundredth digit and so on.
• Algorithm: Radix (A, N)
This algorithm sorts an array A with N elements
• Step 1: Find the largest number of the array
• Step 2: Set digitcount:=Number of digits of the largest number in
given array
• Step 3: Repeat for pass=1 to digitcount
Initialize buckets
• Step 4: Repeat for i=1 to n-1
Set digit:=Digit number pass of a[i]
Put a [i] in bucket number digit
Increment bucket count for bucket numbered digit
Collect all the numbers from buckets in order
• Step 5: Return
• Algorithm: Radix (A, N)
This algorithms sorts an array A with N elements
• Step 1: [Finding Largest Number] Set largest=A[0]
Repeat for k=1 to N
If A [k]>largest, then:
largest=A[k]
[End of for loop]
• Step 2:[Counting the digits of largest number]
Repeat while largest > 0
digitcount:=digitcount+1
largest:=largest/10
[End of loop]
• Step 3:[Execute a pass] Repeat for pass=0 to digitcount
• Step 4:[Initializing the buckets] Repeat for k=0 to 9
bucketcount[k]:=0
[End of for Loop]
• Step 5: Repeat for i=0 to N-1:
digit:=(A[i]/divisor)MOD 10
bucket [digit] [bucketcount[digit]++]:=a[i]
[End of for Loop]
• Step 6: Repeat for k=0 to 10
• Step 7: Repeat for J=0 to bucketcount[k]
A[i++]:=bucket[k][J]
[End Of Step 7 Loop]
Set divisor:=divisor*10
• Step 8 Return
Radix Sort Demo
13
13 28 56
30
30 36 36
28
28
56 56 30
36
56 13 28
36 30 13
36 36
30 13 28 13
30 56 56 28
Radix Bins 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
• Hashing-The search time of each algorithm depends on the number n of elements
in the collection S of data. Is it possible to design a search of O(1)– that is, one
that has a constant search time, no matter where the element is located in the
list? In theory, this goal is not an impossible dream.
Let’s look at an example. We have a list of employees of a fairly small

company. Each of 100 employees has an ID number in the range 0 – 99. If we
store the elements (employee records) in the array, then each employee’s ID
number will be an index to the array element where this employee’s record will
be stored.
• In this case once we know the ID number of the employee, we can
directly access his record through the array index. There is a one-to-
one correspondence between the element’s key and the array index.
However, in practice, this perfect relationship is not easy to establish
or maintain. For example: the same company might use employee’s
five-digit ID number as the primary key. In this case, key values run
from 00000 to 99999. If we want to use the same technique as above,
we need to set up an array of size 100,000, of which only 100
elements will be used:
• Obviously it is very impractical to waste that much storage in order to
make sure that each employee’s record in a unique and predictable
location.
• But what if we keep the array size down to the size that we will
actually be using (100 elements) and use just the last two digits of key
to identify each employee? For example, the employee with the key
number 54876 will be stored in the element of the array with index
76. And the employee with the key 98759 will be stored in the
element of the array with index 59. Note that the elements are not
stored according to the value of the key as they were in the previous
example. In fact, the record of the employee with the key number
54876 precedes the record of the employee with key number 98759,
even though the value of its key is larger. Moreover, we need a way to
convert a five-digit key number to two-digit array index. We need
some function that will do the transformation. Using this technique we
call the array a Hash Table and a function is called a Hash Function.
• Hash Table is a data structure in which keys are mapped to array
positions by a hash function. This table can be searched for an item
in O(1) time using a hash function to form an address from the key.
The easiest way to conceptualize a hash table is to think of it as an
array. When a program stores an element in the array, the elements
key is transformed by a hash function that produces array indexes for
that array.
• Hash Function is a function which, when applied to the key,

produces an integer which can be used as an address in a hash table.
The intent is that elements will be relatively randomly and uniformly
distributed. In the example above the code for the hash function
would look like this (assuming TABLE_SIZE was defined 100):
int hash_function (int id_num)
{
return (id_num % TABLE_SIZE);
}
• Then, for example, to find an element in the table, a program applies
hash function to the element’s key, producing the array index at which
the element is stored.
find (int key)
{
int index;
index = hash_function(key); //finding the element
}
Collision
• Collision is a condition resulting when two or more keys produce the
same hash location.
• For example, we have already stored several employee’s records, and
our table looks something like this:
Suppose, our next employee’s key is 57879. Then our hash function
will produce array index 79. But the array element with index 79
already has a value. As the array begins to fill, keys will inevitably
produce the same array index when transformed by the hash function.
When more than one element tries to occupy the same array position,
we have a collision.
Now, another question arises: can’t we generate the hash function that
never produces a collision? The answer is that in some cases it is
possible to generate such a function. This is known as a perfect hash
function.
• Perfect Hash Function is a function which, when applied to all the

members of the set of items to be stored in a hash table, produces a
unique set of integers within some suitable range. Such function
produces no collisions.
• Good Hash Function minimizes collisions by spreading the elements

uniformly throughout the array.
There is no magic formula for the creation of the hash function. It can
be any mathematical transformation that produces a relatively random
and unique distribution of values within the address space of the
storage. Although the development of a hash function is trial and
error, Some popular hash functions frequently used are:
• Division method-Choose a number m larger than the number n of
keys in K. The number chosen is usually the prime number.The hash
function H is defined by:
H(k)=k(mod m) or H(k)=k(mod m) + 1
The second hash function is used when we want hash addresses
should range from 1 to m rather than 0 to m-1.
• Midsquare method- The key k is squared. Then the hash function is
defined as
H(k)=L
Where L is obtained by deleting digits from both ends of k2.
• Folding method-The key k is partitioned into parts k1,k2,k3----kr where
each part except the last part has equal number of digits as the
required address.Then the parts are added together, ignoring the last
carry. That is,
H(k)=k1+k2+--------+kr
Where the leading digits, if carry, are ignored.
Example: Consider the company each of whose 68 employees is assigned a
unique 4-digit employee number. Suppose L consists of 100 two-digit
addresses:00,01,02…….99. We apply the above studied hash functions to
each of the following employee numbers:
3205, 7148, 2345
(a) Division Method- Choose a prime number m close to 99, such as 97.
Then
H(3205)=4, H(7148)=67 H(2345)=17
For starting the addresses from 01,
H(3205)=4+1=5, H(7148)=67+1=68 H(2345)=17+1=18
(b) Midsquare method-The following calculations are performed:
k: 3205 7148 2345
k2 : 10 272 025 51 093 904 5 499 025
H(k): 72 93 99
• Folding method- Chopping the key k into two parts and adding
yields the following hash addresses:
H(3205)=32+05=37
H(7148)=71+48=19
H(2345)=23 +45= 68
Collision Resolution
The two ways of dealing with collisions are: rehashing and chaining. The
particular way that one chooses depends upon many factors. One important factor is
the ratio of the number n of keys in K to number m of hash addresses in hash
table.This ratio, λ=n/m is called the load factor. The efficiency of a hash function
with a collision resolution procedure is measured by the average number of probes
needed to find the location of record with a given key k.
• Rehashing - Resolving a collision by computing a new hash location (index) in the

array.
• Linear Probing is one type of rehash (getting a new index) - A very simple one. In
case of linear probing, we are looking for an empty spot incrementing the offset by
1 every time. We explore a sequence of location until an empty one is found as
follows: index, index + 1, index + 2, index + 3, ...
In the case of linear probing the code for rehash method will look like this:
int rehash(int index)
{
int new_index;
new_index = (index + 1) % TABLE_SIZE;
return new_index;
}
An alternative to linear probing is quadratic probing.

• Quadratic Probing is a different way of rehashing. In the case of
quadratic probing we are still looking for an empty location.
However, instead of incrementing offset by 1 every time, as in linear
probing, we will increment the offset by 1, 3, 5, 7, ... We explore a
sequence of location until an empty one is found as follows:
index, index + 1, index + 4, index + 9, index + 16, ...
• Retrieving a value.
When it comes to retrieving a value, the program recomputes the array index and checks the key of the
element stored at that location. If the desired key value matches the key value at that location, then the
element is found. The search time is on the order of 1, O(1) (1 comparison per data item). If the key
doesn’t match, then the search function begins a sequential search of the array that continues until:
• the desired element is found
• the search encounters an unused position in the array, indicating that the element is not present
• the search encounters the index which was produced by the hash function, indicating that the table is full
and the element is not present
• In worst case, the search takes (n-1) comparison, which is on the order of n, O(n). “Worst case” is if the
table is full and the search function goes through the whole array, (n-1) elements, every time comparing
the desired key value with the key at the array location. In the worst case element is either found at the
last position before the one that was produced by the hash function or not found at all.
Advantages to this approach
• All the elements (or pointer to the elements) are placed in contiguous storage. This will speed up the
sequential searches when collisions do occur.
•
Disadvantages to this approach
• As the number of collisions increases, the distance from the array index computed by the hash function
and the actual location of the element increases, increasing search time.
• Element tend to cluster around elements that produce collisions*. As the array fills, there will be gaps of
unused locations.
• The hash table has a fixed size. At some point all the elements in the array will be filled. The only
alternative at that point is to expand the table, which also means modify the hash function to
accommodate the increased address space.
• Collision Resolution Using Linked List or Chaining-An alternative
to using adjacent storage (as in array) is to use linked list . In this case
table is implemented as an array of linked lists. Every element of the
table is a pointer to a list. The list will contain all the elements with
the same index produced by the hash function. For example, when the
hash function produces key 79, the new node is created and the array
element with index 79 now points to this node. When another
element’s key produces index 79, the new node will be created and
attached to the first one and so on. The same set of data as in the
previous example will be organized as follows when we use linked
list for handling collisions:
Retrieving a value- When it comes to retrieve a value, the hash function is applied to the
desired key and the array index is produced. Then the search function accesses the list
to which this array element points to. It compares the desired key to the key in the first
node. If it matches, then the element is found. In this case the search of the element is of
the order of 1, O(1). If not, then the function goes through the list comparing the keys.
Search continues until the element is found or the end of the list is detected. In this case
the search time depends on the length of the list.
Advantages to this approach

The hash table size is unlimited (or limited only by available storage space). In this case
you don’t need to expand the table and recreate a hash function.
Collision handling is simple: just insert colliding records into a list.
Disadvantages to this approach

As the list of collided elements (collision chains) become long, search them for a desired
element begin to take longer and longer.
Using pointers slows the algorithm: time required is to allocate new nodes
LINKED LIST
• Linked List- A linked list or one-way list is a linear collection of data
elements, called nodes , where linear order is given by means of
pointers. Each node is divided into two parts:
• The first part contains the information of the element.
• Second part, called the linked field or next pointer field, contains the
address of the next node in the list.
Representation of Linked list in memory
• Linked list is maintained in memory by two linear arrays: INFO and
LINK such that INFO[K] and LINK[K] contain respectively the
information part and the next pointer field of node of LIST. LIST also
requires a variable name such as START which contains the location
of the beginning of the list and the next pointer denoted by NULL
which indicates the end of the LIST.
BED NUMBER PATIENT NEXT
START
1 Kirk 7
5 2
3 Dean 11
4 Maxwell 12
5 Adams 3
6
7 Lane 4
8 Green 1
9 Samuels 0
10
11 Fields 8
12 Nelson 9
• Algorithm: (Traversing a Linked List)
Let LIST be a linked list in memory. This algorithm
traverses LIST, applying an operation PROCESS to each
element of LIST. Variable PTR points to the node
currently being processed.
• Step 1: Set PTR:= START
• Step 2: Repeat while PTR ≠ NULL:
Apply PROCESS to INFO[PTR]
Set PTR:= LINK[PTR] [PTR now points to next node]
• Step 3: Exit
Searching an unsorted Linked List
• Algorithm: SEARCH( INFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC)
LIST is a linked list in memory. This algorithm finds the
location of LOC of the node where ITEM first appears in
LIST , or sets LOC=NULL
• Step 1: Set PTR:=START
• Step 2: Repeat while PTR≠ NULL
If ITEM = INFO[PTR], then:
Set LOC := PTR
Return
Else:
Set PTR:= LINK[PTR]
• Step 3: [Search is unsuccessful] Set LOC:=NULL
• Step 4: Return
Complexity of this algorithm is same as that of linear search
algorithm for linear array. Worst case running time is proportional to
number n of elements in LIST and the average case running time is
proportional to n/2 with condition that ITEM appears once in LIST
but with equal probability in any node of LIST.
Binary search cannot be applied to linked list as there is no

provision to locate the middle element of LIST. This property is one
of the main drawback of using a linked list as a data structure.
• Search in sorted list
• Algorithm: SRCHSL(INFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC)
LIST is sorted list (Sorted in ascending order) in memory.
This algorithm finds the location LOC of the node where
ITEM first appears in LIST or sets LOC=NULL
• Step 1: Set PTR:= START
• Step 2:Repeat while PTR ≠ NULL
If ITEM > INFO[PTR], then:
Set PTR := LINK[PTR]
Else If ITEM = INFO[PTR], then:
Set LOC := PTR
Return
Else:
Set LOC:= NULL
Return
• Step 3: Set LOC:= NULL
• Step 4: Return
START
INFO[PTR]
LINK[PTR]
• Insertion into a Linked List- Together with the linked list , a special
list is maintained in memory which consist of unused memory cells.
This list, which has its own pointer, is called the list of available space
or the free storage list or the free pool. This list is called the Avail
List. During insertion operation, new nodes are taken from this avail
list which is maintained just like normal data linked list using its own
pointer. Similar to START, Avail list also has its own start pointer
named as AVAIL which stores the address of the first free node of
avail list.
1 Kirk 7
2 6
START 5
3 Dean 11
4 Maxwell 12
5 Adams 3
6 0
7 Lane 4
8 Green 1
AVAIL 10
9 Samuels 0
10 2
11 Fields 8
12 Nelson 9
• Insertion in a Linked List- Algorithms which insert nodes into linked
lists come up in various situations. Three main cases to be discussed are:
• Inserting node at the beginning of the List
• Inserting node after the node with a given location
• Inserting node into a sorted list.
For all algorithms, variable ITEM contains the new information to be
added to the list. All cases follow some common steps:
• Checking to see if free space is available in AVAIL list. If
AVAIL=NULL, algorithm will print overflow
• Removing first node from AVAIL list. Using variable NEW to keep
track of location of new node, this step can be implemented by the pair of
assignments (in this order)
NEW:= AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
• Copying new information into new node
INFO[NEW]:=ITEM
START
AVAIL
ITEM
NEW
INSERTION AT THE BEGINNING OF THE LINKED LIST

INSERTING AT THE BEGINNING OF THE LIST
• Algorithm: INSFIRST (INFO, LINK,START,AVAIL,ITEM)
This algorithm inserts ITEM as the first node in the list
• Step 1: [OVERFLOW ?] If AVAIL=NULL, then
Write: OVERFLOW
Return
• Step 2: [Remove first node from AVAIL list ]
Set NEW:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL].
• Step 3: Set INFO[NEW]:=ITEM [Copies new data into new node]
• Step 4: Set LINK[NEW]:= START
[New node now points to original first node]
• Step 5: Set START:=NEW [Changes START so it points to new
node]
• Step 6: Return
INSERTING AFTER A GIVEN NODE
• Algorithm: INSLOC(INFO, LINK,START,AVAIL, LOC, ITEM)
This algorithm inserts ITEM so that ITEM follows the
node with location LOC or inserts ITEM as the first node
when LOC =NULL
• Step 1: [OVERFLOW] If AVAIL=NULL, then:
• Write: OVERFLOW
• Return
• Step 2: [Remove first node from AVAIL list]
Set NEW:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
• Step 3: Set INFO[NEW]:= ITEM [Copies new data into new node]
• Step 4: If LOC=NULL, then:
Set LINK[NEW]:=START and START:=NEW
Else:
Set LINK[NEW]:=LINK[LOC] and LINK[LOC]:= NEW
• Step 5: Return
START LOC
AVAIL
NEW
18
ITEM
INSERTING BEFORE A GIVEN NODE
• Algorithm: INSLOC(INFO, LINK,START,AVAIL, ITEM, ITEM1)
This algorithm inserts ITEM so that ITEM PRECEDES the
node with data item ITEM1
Write: OVERFLOW
Return
• Step 4: Set PTR:=START and SAVE:=NULL
• Step 5: Repeat while INFO[PTR]≠ ITEM1
Set SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
• Step 6:Set LOC:=SAVE
Else:
• Step 8: Return
INSERTING BEFORE A GIVEN NODE WITH LOCATION GIVEN
• Algorithm: INSLOC(INFO, LINK,START,AVAIL, ITEM, LOC)
This algorithm inserts ITEM so that ITEM PRECEDES the
node with location LOC
Write: OVERFLOW
Return
• Step 4: Set PTR:=START and SAVE:=NULL
• Step 5: Repeat while PTR≠ LOC
[End of Loop]
Else:
• Step 8: Return
INSERTING BEFORE NTH NODE
• Algorithm: INSLOC(INFO, LINK,START,AVAIL, ITEM, N)
This algorithm inserts ITEM so that ITEM PRECEDES the Nth node
Write: OVERFLOW
Return
• Step 4: Set PTR:=START , SAVE:=NULL and K:=1
• Step 5: Repeat while K≠ N
• SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=LINK[PTR]
• Set K:=K+1
• [End of Loop]
Else:
• Step 8: Return
• For insertion in a sorted list, we use two alogorithms. One algorithm
finds the location of the node after which the new node has to be
inserted. This algorithm returns the location to main algorithm which
finally do the insertion.
INSERTING INTO A SORTED LIST
• Algorithm: INSSRT(INFO,LINK,START,AVAIL,ITEM)
• Step 1: CALL FINDA(INFO,LINK, START,ITEM,LOC)
• Step 2: CALL INSLOC(INFO,LINK,START,AVAIL,LOC,ITEM)
• Step 3: Exit
• Algorithm: FINDA(INFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC)
This algorithm finds the location LOC of the last node in a
sorted list such that INFO[LOC ]<ITEM, or sets
LOC=NULL
• Step 1: [List Empty ?] If START=NULL, then:
Set LOC:=NULL
Return
• Step 2: [Special case] If ITEM<INFO[START], then:
Set LOC:=NULL
Return
• Step 3: Set SAVE:=START and PTR:=LINK[START]
• Step 4: Repeat while PTR≠NULL:
If ITEM< INFO[PTR], then:
Set LOC:=SAVE
Return
• Step 5: Set LOC:=SAVE
• Step 6: Return
• Algorithm: INSLOC(INFO, LINK,START,AVAIL, LOC, ITEM)
This algorithm inserts ITEM so that ITEM follows the
node with location LOC or inserts ITEM as the first node
when LOC =NULL
• Write: OVERFLOW
• Return
Else:
• Step 5: Return
Deletion of a node from a linked list
• Case 1: Deletion of node following a given node
• Algorithm: DEL(INFO,LINK,START,AVAIL,LOC,LOCP)
This algorithm deletes node N with location LOC. LOCP
is location of node which precedes N or when N is first
node, LOCP=NULL.
Write: ‘UNDERFLOW’
Exit
• Step 2: If LOCP=NULL, then:
Set START:=LINK[START] [Deletes first node]
Else:
Set LINK[LOCP]:=LINK[LOC]
• Step 3: [Return deleted node to AVAIL list]
Set LINK[LOC]:=AVAIL and
AVAIL:=LOC
• Step 4: Return
Deleting the node with a given item of information
For deleting with given item of information, we first need to
know the location of item to be deleted and also the location
preceding the item to be deleted. For this, one algorithm will be called
from the main algorithm to search for the two locations. Two
variables, SAVE and PTR will be used to save the location of
preceding and current node at every comparison respectively. Once ,
locations are found, deletion will be done in main algorithm.
• Algorithm: DELETE(INFO, LINK, START, AVAIL, ITEM)
• Step 1: CALL FINDB(INFO, LINK,START, ITEM, LOC, LOCP)
Write: ‘Underflow’
Exit
• Step 3: If LOCP=NULL, then:
Set START:= LINK[START]
Else:
Set LINK[LOCP]:=LINK[LOC]
• Step 4: Set LINK[LOC]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LOC
• Step 5: Return
• Algorithm: FINDB(INFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC,LOCP)
This algorithm finds the location LOC of first node N
which contains ITEM and location LOCP of node
preceding N. if ITEM does not appear in the list, procedure
sets LOC=NULL and if ITEM appears in first node, then it
sets LOCP=NULL
• Step 1: If START=NULL, then:
Set LOC:=NULL and LOCP:=NULL
Return
• Step 2: If INFO[START]=ITEM, then:
Set LOC:=START and LOCP:=NULL
Return
• Step 4: Repeat while PTR≠NULL:
• Step 5: If INFO[PTR]=ITEM, then:
Set LOC:=PTR and LOCP:=SAVE
Return
• Step 6: Set SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
• Step 7:[Item to be deleted not in list] Set LOC:=NULL
• Step 8: Return
Concatenating two linear linked lists
• Algorithm: Concatenate(INFO,LINK,START1,START2)
This algorithm concatenates two linked lists with start
pointers START1 and START2
• Step 1: Set PTR:=START1
• Step 2: Repeat while LINK[PTR]≠NULL:
Set PTR:=LINK[PTR]
• Step 3: Set LINK[PTR]:=START2
• Step 4: Return
• Circular Linked List- A circular linked list is a linked list in which last
element or node of the list points to first node. For non-empty circular
linked list, there are no NULL pointers. The memory declarations for
representing the circular linked lists are the same as for linear linked
lists. All operations performed on linear linked lists can be easily
extended to circular linked lists with following exceptions:
• While inserting new node at the end of the list, its next pointer field is
made to point to the first node.
• While testing for end of list, we compare the next pointer field with
address of the first node
Circular linked list is usually implemented using header linked
list. Header linked list is a linked list which always contains a special
node called the header node, at the beginning of the list. This header
node usually contains vital information about the linked list such as
number of nodes in lists, whether list is sorted or not etc. Circular header
lists are frequently used instead of ordinary linked lists as many
operations are much easier to state and implement using header lists
• This comes from the following two properties of circular header
linked lists:
• The null pointer is not used, and hence all pointers contain valid
addresses
• Every (ordinary ) node has a predecessor, so the first node may not
require a special case.
• Algorithm: (Traversing a circular header linked list)
This algorithm traverses a circular header linked list with
START pointer storing the address of the header node.
• Step 1: Set PTR:=LINK[START]
• Step 2: Repeat while PTR≠START:
Set PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: Return
Searching a circular header linked list
• Algorithm: SRCHHL(INFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC)
• This algorithm searches a circular header linked list
• Step 1: Set PTR:=LINK[START]
• Step 2: Repeat while INFO[PTR]≠ITEM and PTR≠START:
Set PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
Set LOC:=PTR
Else:
Set LOC:=NULL
• Step 4: Return
Deletion from a circular header linked list
Algorithm: DELLOCHL(INFO,LINK,START,AVAIL,ITEM)
This algorithm deletes an item from a circular header
linked list.
• Step 1: CALL FINDBHL(INFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC,LOCP)
Write: ‘item not in the list’
Exit
• Step 3: Set LINK[LOCP]:=LINK[LOC] [Node deleted]
• Step 4: Set LINK[LOC]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LOC
• [Memory retuned to Avail list]
• Step 5: Return
Algorithm: FINDBHL(NFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC,LOCP)
This algorithm finds the location of the node to be deleted
and the location of the node preceding the node to be
deleted
• Step 2: Repeat while INFO[PTR]≠ITEM and PTR≠START
[End of Loop]
Set LOC:=PTR and LOCP:=SAVE
Else:
Set LOC:=NULL and LOCP:=SAVE
• Step 4: Return
Insertion in a circular header linked list
Algorithm: INSRT(INFO,LINK,START,AVAIL,ITEM,LOC)
This algorithm inserts item in a circular header linked list
after the location LOC
• Step 1:If AVAIL=NULL, then
Write: ‘OVERFLOW’
Exit
• Step 2: Set NEW:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
• Step 3: Set INFO[NEW]:=ITEM
• Step 4: Set LINK[NEW]:=LINK[LOC]
Set LINK[LOC]:=NEW
• Step 5: Return
Insertion in a sorted circular header linked list
Algorithm: INSSRT(INFO,LINK,START,AVAIL,ITEM)
This algorithm inserts an element in a sorted circular header
linked list
Step 1: CALL FINDA(INFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC)
Step 2: If AVAIL=NULL, then
Return
Step 3: Set NEW:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Step 4: Set INFO[NEW]:=ITEM
Step 5: Set LINK[NEW]:=LINK[LOC]
Set LINK[LOC]:=NEW
Step 6: Return
Algorithm: FINDA(INFO,LINK,ITEM,LOC,START)
This algorithm finds the location LOC after which to
insert
• Step 2: Set SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=LINK[PTR]
• Step 3: Repeat while PTR≠START
If INFO[PTR]>ITEM, then
Set LOC:=SAVE
Return
[End of Loop]
• Step 4: Set LOC:=SAVE
• Step 5: Return
• One of the most important application of Linked List is representation
of a polynomial in memory. Although, polynomial can be represented
using a linear linked list but common and preferred way of representing
polynomial is using circular linked list with a header node.
• Polynomial Representation: Header linked list are frequently used for
maintaining polynomials in memory. The header node plays an
important part in this representation since it is needed to represent the
zero polynomial.
• Specifically, the information part of node is divided into two fields
representing respectively, the coefficient and the exponent of
corresponding polynomial term and nodes are linked according to
decreasing degree. List pointer variable POLY points to header node
whose exponent field is assigned a negative number, in this case -1. The
array representation of List will require three linear arrays as COEFF,
EXP and LINK. For example:
• P(x)= 2x8-5x7-3x2+4 can be represented as:
• POLY
HEADER NODE WITH EXP -1 AND COEFF 0
0 -1 2 8 -5 7 -3 2 4 0
CIRCULAR HEADER LINEKD LIST REPRESENTATION OF 2x8-5x7-3x2+4

• Addition of polynomials using linear
linked list representation for a polynomial
Algorithm:ADDPOLY( COEFF, POWER, LINK, POLY1, POLY2, SUMPOLY, AVAIL)
This algorithm adds the two polynomials implemented using linear linked
list and stores the sum in another linear linked list. POLY1 and POLY2 are
the two variables that point to the starting nodes of the two polynomials.
Step 1: Set SUMPOLY:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Step 2: Repeat while POLY1 ≠ NULL and POLY2≠NULL:
If POWER[POLY1]>POWER[POLY2],then:
Set COEFF[SUMPOLY]:=COEFF[POLY1]
Set POWER[SUMPOLY]:=POWER[POLY1]
Set POLY1:=LINK[POLY1]
Set LINK[SUMPOLY]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Set SUMPOLY:=LINK[SUMPOLY]
Else If POWER[POLY2]>POWER[POLY1], then:
Else:
Set COEFF[SUMPOLY]:=COEFF[POLY1]+COEFF[POLY2]
Set POLY2=LINK[POLY2]
[End of Loop]
• Step3: If POLY1=NULL , then:
Repeat while POLY2≠NULL
[End of Loop]
Step 4: If POLY2=NULL, then:
Repeat while POLY1≠NULL
[End of Loop]
Step 5: Set LINK[SUMPOLY]:=NULL
Step 6: Return
• Addition of polynomials using circular header
linked list representation for polynomials
Algorithm: ADDPOLY( COEFF, POWER, LINK, POLY1,POLY2, SUMPOLY, AVAIL)
This algorithm finds the sum of two polynomials implemented using header circular
linked lists. POLY1 and POLY2 contain the addresses of header nodes of two
polynomials and SUMPOLY is the circular header linked list storing the terms of sum of
two polynomials
Step 1: Set HEADER:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Step 2: Set SUMPOLY:=HEADER
Set LINK[SUMPOLY ]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Step 3: Set START1:=POLY1 and START2:=POLY2
Set POLY1:=LINK[START1] and POLY2:=LINK[START2]
Step 4: Repeat while POLY1 ≠ START1 and POLY2≠START2:
If POWER[POLY1]>POWER[POLY2],then:
Else If POWER[POLY2]>POWER[POLY1], then:
Else:
Set COEFF[SUMPOLY]:=COEFF[POLY1]+COEFF[POLY2]
Set POLY2=LINK[POLY2]
[End of Loop]
• Step5: If POLY1=START1 , then:
Repeat while POLY2≠ START2
[End of Loop]
Step 6: If POLY2=START2, then:
Repeat while POLY1≠START1
[End of Loop]
Step 7: Set LINK[SUMPOLY]:=HEADER and
SUMPOLY:=LINK[SUMPOLY]
Step 8: Return
• Multiplication of Polynomials using linear
linked list representation for polynomials
Algorithm: MULPOLY( COEFF, POWER, LINK, POLY1, POLY2, PRODPOLY, AVAIL)
This algorithm multiplies two polynomials implemented using linear linked
list. POLY1 and POLY2 contain the addresses of starting nodes of two
polynomials. The result of multiplication is stored in another linked list
whose starting node is PRODPOLY
Step 1: Set PRODPOLY:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Set START:=PRODPOLY
Step 2: Repeat while POLY1 ≠ NULL
Step 3:Repeat while POLY2≠NULL:
Set COEFF[PRODPOLY]:=COEFF[POLY1]*COEFF[POLY2]
Set POWER[PRODPOLY]:=POWER[POLY1]+POWER[POLY2]
Set LINK[PRODPOLY]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Set PRODPOLY:=LINK[PRODPOLY]
Step 4 Set LINK[PRODPOLY]:=NULL and PRODPOLY:=LINK[PRODPOLY]
Step 5: Return
Algorithm: MULPOLY( COEFF, POWER, LINK, POLY1, POLY2, PRODPOLY, AVAIL)
This algorithm finds the product of two polynomials implemented using header
circular linked list. POLY1 and POLY2 contain addresses of header nodes of two
polynomials. The result of multiplication is stored in another header circular linked list.
Step 1: Set HEADER:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Step 2: Set PRODPOLY :=HEADER
Set LINK[PRODPOLY ]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Step 3: Set START1:=POLY1 and START2:=POLY2
Set POLY1:=LINK[START1] and POLY2:=LINK[START2]
Step 4: Repeat while POLY1 ≠ START1
Step 5: Repeat while POLY2≠ START2
Set COEFF[PRODPOLY]:=COEFF[POLY1]*COEFF[POLY2]
Set POWER[PRODPOLY]:=POWER[POLY1]+POWER[POLY2]
Set LINK[PRODPOLY]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Step 6: Set LINK[PRODPOLY]:=HEADER and PRODPOLY:=LINK[PRODPOLY]
Step 7: Return
Doubly Linked List: Two-way List
• A two-way list is a linear linked list which can be traversed in two
directions: in usual forward direction from beginning of the list to end
and in backward direction from end of list to the beginning. Thus, given
the location LOC of a node N in list, one has immediate access to both
the next node and the preceding node in the list.
• Each node of a two-way list is divided into three parts:
– An information field INFO which contains data of N
– A pointer field FORW which contains the location of next node in
the list
– A pointer field BACK which contains the location of preceding
node.
The list also requires two list pointer variables FIRST which points
to first node in the list and LAST which points to the last node in the
list. Thus null pointer will appear in FORW field of last node in list and
also in BACK field of first node in list.
• Two way lists are maintained in memory by means of linear arrays in
same way as one way list except that two pointer arrays , FORW and
BACK , are required instead of one list pointer variable. The list
AVAIL will still be maintained as a one-way list.
LAST
FIRST
FORW[PTR]
BACK[PTR]
Operations on a Two-way list
• Traversal
• Algorithm: Traversal
This algorithm traverses a two-way list. FORW and BACK
are the two address parts of each node containing the address
of next node and previous node respectively. INFO is the
information part of each node. START contains the address
of the first node
Step 1: Set PTR:=START
Step 2: Repeat while PTR≠ NULL
Step 3: Set PTR:=FORW[PTR]
Step 4: Exit
• Algorithm: SEARCH(INFO,FORW,BACK,ITEM,START,LOC)
This algorithm searches the location LOC of ITEM in a two-
way list and sets LOC=NULL if ITEM is not found in the list
• Step 2: Repeat while PTR≠NULL and INFO[PTR]≠ITEM
Set PTR:=FORW[PTR]
[End of Loop]
Set LOC:=PTR
Else:
Set LOC:=NULL
• Step 4: Return
• Algorithm: DELETE(INFO,FROW,BACK,START,AVAIL,LOC)
This algorithm deletes a node from a two-way list
• Step 1: If LOC=START , then:
START:=FORW[START]
BACK[START]:=NULL
Return
• Step 2: [Delete node] Set FORW[BACK[LOC]]:=FORW[LOC]
Set BACK[FORW[LOC]]:=BACK[LOC]
• Step 3: [Returning node to AVAIL]
Set FORW[LOC]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LOC
• Step 4: Return
• Algorithm:INSRT (INFO,FORW,BACK,START,AVAIL,LOCA, LOCB,
ITEM)
This algorithm inserts an item in a doubly linked list.
LOCA and LOCB location of adjacent nodes A and B
Write: OVERFLOW
Return
Set INFO[NEW]:=ITEM
• Step 3: Set FORW[LOCA]:=NEW and BACK[NEW]:=LOCA
Set FORW[NEW]:=LOCB and BACK[LOCB]:=NEW
• Step 4: Return
FORW[PTR] NEW
BACK[PTR]
TEST QUESTIONS
• Algorithm to copy the contents of one linked list to another
• Algorithm: Copy (INFO,LINK,START,AVAIL)
This algorithm copies the contents of one linked list to
another.
• Step 1: If AVAIL=NULL,then
Write: ‘Overflow’
Return
• Step 3: Set NEW:=AVAIL , START1:=NEW and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
• Step 4: Repeat while PTR≠ NULL
INFO[NEW]:=INFO[PTR]
LINK[NEW]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
NEW:=LINK[NEW]
[End of Loop]
• Step 5: Set LINK[NEW]:=NULL
• Step 6: Return
• Algorithm: Copy (INFO,LINK,START,START1)
This algorithm copies the contents of one linked list to another. START AND START1 are the
start pointers of two lists
• Step 1: Set PTR:=START and PTR1:=START1
• Step 2: Repeat while PTR≠ NULL and PTR1 ≠ NULL
INFO[PTR1]:=INFO[PTR]
PTR1:=LINK[PTR1]
PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: If PTR=NULL and PTR1=NULL
Return
• Step 4:[Case when the list to be copied is still left]
If PTR1=NULL,then
PTR1: =AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Repeat while PTR ≠ NULL
INFO[PTR1]:=INFO[PTR]
LINK[PTR1]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
PTR1:=LINK[PTR1]
[End of Loop]
• Step 5: [Case when list to be copied is finished, Truncate the extra nodes]
If PTR1 ≠NULL, then
Set PTR1:=NULL
• Step 6: Return
• Algorithm to insert a node after the kth node in the circular linked list
• Algorithm: INSRT (INFO,LINK,START,AVAIL,K,ITEM)
This algorithm inserts in a circular linked list after the kth node
• Step 1: If AVAIL:=NULL, then
Return
• Set INFO[NEW]:=ITEM
• Step 3: Set PTR:=START and N:=1
• Step 4: If N=K, then
Set LINK[NEW]:=LINK[PTR]
Set LINK[PTR]:=NEW
Return
• Step 5: Set PTR:=LINK[PTR] and
• Step 6: Repeat while N ≠ K
Set PTR:=LINK[PTR] and N:=N+1
• Step 7: Set LINK[NEW]:=LINK[PTR]
Set LINK[PTR]:=NEW
• Step 8: Return
• Algorithm to delete the kth node from a doubly linked list
• Algorithm: Del (INFO,FORW,BACK,FIRST,LAST,AVAIL,K)
This algorithm deletes the kth node
• Step 1: Set N:=1 and PTR:=FIRST
• Step 2: Set SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=FORW[PTR]
• Step 3: Repeat while N≠ K
Set SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=FORW[PTR]
Set N:=N+1
• Step 4: If N=K, then
FORW[SAVE]:=FORW[PTR]
BACK[FORW[PTR]]:=BACK[PTR]
FORW[PTR]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=PTR
• Step 5: Return
GARBAGE
COLLECTION
• In computer science, garbage collection (GC) is a form of automatic memory
management. The garbage collector, or just collector, attempts to reclaim garbage, or
memory used by objects that will never be accessed or mutated again by the
application. Garbage collection is often portrayed as the opposite of manual memory
management, which requires the programmer to specify which objects to deallocate
and return to the memory system.
• The basic principle of how a garbage collector works is:
• Determine what data objects in a program will not be accessed in the future
• Reclaim the resources used by those objects .
Reachability of an object
• Informally, a reachable object can be defined as an object for which there exists some
variable in the program environment that leads to it, either directly or through
references from other reachable objects. More precisely, objects can be reachable in
. only two ways:
• A distinguished set of objects are assumed to be reachable—these are known as the
roots. Typically, these include all the objects referenced from anywhere in the call
stack (that is, all local variables and parameters in the functions currently being
invoked), and any global variables.
• Anything referenced from a reachable object is itself reachable; more formally,
reachability is a transitive closure
• The memory is traced for garbage collection using Tracing collectors
OR SIMPLY COLLECTORS. Tracing collectors are called that
way because they trace through the working set of memory. These
garbage collectors perform collection in cycles. A cycle is started
when the collector decides (or is notified) that it needs to reclaim
storage, which in particular happens when the system is low on
memory. The original method involves a naive mark-and-sweep in
which the entire memory set is touched several times
• In this method, each object in memory has a flag (typically a single
bit) reserved for garbage collection use only. This flag is always
cleared (counter-intuitively), except during the collection cycle. The
first stage of collection sweeps the entire 'root set', marking each
accessible object as being 'in-use'. All objects transitively accessible
from the root set are marked, as well. Finally, each object in memory
is again examined; those with the in-use flag still cleared are not
reachable by any program or data, and their memory is freed. (For
objects which are marked in-use, the in-use flag is cleared again,
preparing for the next cycle.).
Moving vs. non-moving garbage Collection
• Once the unreachable set has been determined, the garbage collector
may simply release the unreachable objects and leave everything else
as it is, or it may copy some or all of the reachable objects into a new
area of memory, updating all references to those objects as needed.
These are called "non-moving" and "moving" garbage collectors,
respectively.
• At first, a moving garbage collection strategy may seem inefficient
and costly compared to the non-moving approach, since much more
work would appear to be required on each cycle. In fact, however, the
moving garbage collection strategy leads to several performance
advantages, both during the garbage collection cycle itself and during
actual program execution
Memory Allocation: Garbage Collection
• The maintenance of linked list in memory assumes the possibility of
inserting new nodes into the linked lists and hence requires some
mechanism which provides unused memory space for new nodes..
Analogously, some mechanism is required whereby memory space of
deleted nodes becomes available for future use.
Together with linked list, a special list is maintained in memory
which consists of unused memory cells. This list, which has its own
pointer is called the list of available space or the free-storage list or
the free pool. During insertions and deletions in a linked list, these
unused memory cells will also be linked together to form a linked list
using AVAIL as its list pointer variable.
Garbage Collection: The operating system of a computer may
periodically collect all deleted space onto the free-storage list. Any
technique which does this collection is called garbage collection.
Garbage collection is mainly used when a node is deleted from a list
or an entire list is deleted from a program.
Garbage collection usually takes place in two steps:
• First the computer runs through the whole list tagging those cells
which are currently in use,
• The computer then runs through the memory collecting all untagged
spaces onto the free storage list.
Garbage collection may take place when there is only some
minimum amount of space or no space at all left in free storage list or
when CPU is idle and has time to do the collection.
STACKS
• Stack- A stack is a linear data structure in which items may be added
or removed only at one end . Accordingly, stacks are also called last-
in-first-out or LIFO lists. The end at which element is added or
removed is called the top of the stack. Two basic operations
associated with stacks are :
• Push- Term used to denote insertion of an element onto a stack.
• Pop- Term used to describe deletion of an element from a stack.
The order in which elements are pushed onto a stack is reverse of the
order in which elements are popped from a stack

Representation of stacks
• Stacks may be represented in memory in various ways usually by
means of one-way list or a linear array
In array representation of stack, stack is maintained by an
array named STACK , a variable TOP which contains the
location/index of top element of stack and a variable MAXSTK
giving the maximum number of elements that can be held by the
stack. The condition TOP=0 or TOP=NULL indicates that stack is
empty.
The operation of addition of an item on stack and operation of
removing an item from a stack may be implemented respectively by
sub algorithms, called PUSH and POP. Before executing operation
PUSH on to a stack, one must first test whether there is room in the
stack for the new item. If not, then we have the condition known as
overflow. Analogously, in executing the POP operation, one must
first test where there is an element in stack to be deleted. If not, then
we have condition known as underflow.
ARRAY
IMPLEMENTATION
OF STACK
• Algorithm: PUSH (STACK,TOP,MAXSTK,ITEM)
This algorithm pushes an item onto the stack array. TOP
stores the index of top element of the stack and MAXSTK
stores the maximum size of the stack.
• Step 1: [Stack already filled]
If TOP=MAXSTK, then:
Return
• Step 2: Set TOP:=TOP+1
• Step 3: Set STACK[TOP]:=ITEM
• Step 4: Return
Algorithm: POP(STACK,TOP,ITEM)
This procedure deletes the top element of
STACK array and assign it to variable ITEM
• Step 1: If TOP=0,then:
Return
• Step 2: Set ITEM:=STACK[TOP]
• Step 3: Set TOP:=TOP-1
• Step 4: Return
• A stack represented using a linked list is also known as linked stack.
The array based representation of stack suffers from following
limitations:
• Size of stack must be known in advance
• Representing stack as an array prohibits the growth of stack beyond
finite number of elements.
In a linked list implementation of stack, each memory cell will
contain the data part of the current element of stack and pointer that
stores the address of its bottom element and the memory cell
containing the bottom most element will have a NULL pointer
Push operation on linked list representation of stack
• Algorithm: PUSH(INFO, LINK, TOP, ITEM, AVAIL)
This algorithm pushes an element to the top of the stack
Step 1: If AVAIL=NULL, then
Return
Step 3: Set INFO[NEW]:=ITEM
Step 4: If TOP=NULL, then
Set LINK[NEW]:=NULL
Set TOP:=NEW
Return
Else:
Set LINK[NEW]:=TOP
Set TOP:=NEW
Step 5: Return
POP operation on linked list representation of stack
• Algorithm: POP(INFO, LINK, TOP, AVAIL)
• This algorithm deletes an element from the top of the
stack
• Step 1: If TOP=NULL , then:
Write: ‘UNDERFLOLW’
Return
• Step 2: Set PTR:=TOP
Set TOP:=LINK[TOP]
Write: INFO[PTR]
• Step 3: Set LINK[PTR]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=PTR
• Step 4: Return
Application of stack
• Evaluation of arithmetic expression.
• For most common arithmetic operations, operator symbol is placed
between its operands. This is called infix notation of an expression.
To use stack to evaluate an arithmetic expression, we have to convert
the expression into its prefix or postfix notation.
• Polish notation , refers to the notation in which operator symbol is
placed before its two operands. This is also called prefix notation of
an arithmetic expression. The fundamental property of polish notation
is that the order in which operations are to be performed is completely
determined by positions of operators and operands in expression.
Accordingly, one never needs parentheses when writing expression in
polish notation.
• Reverse Polish notation refers to notation in which operator is placed
after its two operands. This notation is frequently called postfix
notation. Examples of three notations are:
• INFIX NOTATION: A+B
• PREFIX OR POLISH NOTATION: +AB
• POSTFIX OR REVERSE POLISH NOATATION: AB+
• Convert the following infix expressions to prefix and postfix forms

• A+(B*C)
• (A+B)/(C+D)
• Prefix: +A*BC Postfix: A BC*+
• Prefix: / +AB+CD Postfix: AB+CD+/
The computer usually evaluates an arithmetic expression written in infix
notation in two steps.
• Converts expression to postfix notation
• Evaluates the postfix notation.
• Evaluation of postfix expression

• Suppose P is an arithmetic expression written in postfix notation. The
following algorithm which uses a STACK to hold operands and
evaluates P
• Algorithm: This algorithm finds the VALUE of an arithmetic
expression P written in Postfix notation.
Step 1: Add a right parentheses “ )” at the end of P
Step 2: Scan P from left to right and repeat step 3 and 4 for each element
of P until “)” is encountered
Step 3: If an operand is encountered, put the operand on the stack
Step 4: If an operator is encountered , then:
(a) Remove the two top elements of stack, where A is top element
and B is next-top-element.
(b) Evaluate B A
(c ) Place the result of (b) back on stack
Step 5: Set VALUE equal to the top element of stack
Step 6: Exit
Transforming Infix Expression into Postfix Expression
• The algorithm uses a stack to temporarily hold operators and left
parentheses. The postfix expression P will be constructed from left to
right using operands from Q and operators which are removed from
STACK. The algorithm begins by pushing a left parentheses onto
stack and adding a right parentheses at the end of Q
• Algorithm: POSTFIX (Q, P)
Suppose Q is an arithmetic expression written in infix
notation. This algorithm finds the equivalent postfix
expression P
Step 1: Push “(“ on to the STACK and add “)” to the end of Q
Step 2: Scan Q from left to right and repeat step 3 to 6 for each element
of Q until the STACK is empty
Step 3: If an operand is encountered, add it to P
Step 4: If left parentheses is encountered, add it to STACK
Step 5: If an operator is encountered, then:
(a) Repeatedly pop from STACK and add to P each operator
which has same precedence or higher precedence than
(b) Add to STACK
Step 6: If a right parentheses is encountered , then:
(a) Repeatedly pop from STACK and add to P each operator until
a left parentheses is encountered
(b) Remove the left parentheses
Step 7: Exit
• Example: Convert Q=A+(B*C) / D) to its corresponding postfix form
• Solution: put “)” at the end of Q and put “(“ on stack
• Starting from left: Operand A , put it on P
• Operator + move to stack as no operator there
• ( move on stack
• Operand B, put it on P
• Operator * , move to stack as no operator
• Operand C , move to P
• ) , pop from stack and put on P until “ (“ is encountered.
• Pop “(“ also
• operator /, as precedence of / is higher than + on stack, no pop
• possible. Push / on stack
• Operand D , put it on P
• Right parentheses ), Pop all the elements and add the P until ( is
encountered. Also remove ( from stack
( /
+ + +
• ( ( ( P= A B C* D / +
Transforming Infix Expression into Prefix Expression
• Algorithm: [Polish Notation] PREFIX (Q, P)
Suppose Q is an arithmetic expression written in infix
notation. This algorithm finds the equivalent prefix
expression P
Step 1: Reverse the input string
Step 2: Examine the next element in the input
Step 3: If it is operand, add it to output string
Step 4: If it is closing parentheses, push it on stack
Step 5: If it is operator, then:
(i) if stack is empty, push operator on stack
(ii) if top of stack is closing parentheses, push operator on the
stack
(iii) If it has same or higher priority than top of stack, push
operator on stack
Else pop the operator from the stack and add it to output
string, repeat step 5
• Step 6: If it is an opening parentheses, pop operators from stack and
add them to output string until a closing parentheses is encountered,
pop and discard the closing parentheses.
• Step 7: If there is more input go to step 2
• Step 8: If there is no more input, unstack the remaining operators and
add them to output string
• Step 9: Reverse the output string
• Consider the following arithmetic expression P written in postfix
notation
P: 12, 7, 3 -, /, 2, 1, 5, +, *, +
(a) Translate P, by inspection and hand, into its equivalent infix
expression
(b) Evaluate the infix expression
Sol: (a) Scanning from left to right, translate each operator from postfix
to infix notation
P = 12, [7-3], /, 2, 1, 5, +, *, +
= [12/[7-3]],2, [1+5],*,+
= 12/(7-3)+2*(1+5)
(b) 12/(7-3)+2*(1+5)
= [3],[2*6],+
= 3+12
= 15
Practical applications of stack
• Stacks are used for implementing function calls in a program

• Used for implementing recursion.
• Used for conversion of infix expression to its postfix or prefix form
• Used for evaluation of postfix expression.
• Used in sorting of arrays (quicksort and mergesort technique)
QUEUE
• Queue- A queue is a linear list of elements in which insertions can
take place at one end called the rear of the queue, and deletion can
take place only at other end, called the font of the queue. Queues are
also called the FIFO lists (First In First Out) since first element in
queue is the first element out of the queue. An important example of a
queue in computer science occurs in time sharing systems in which
programs with same priority form a queue while waiting to be
executed.
• Queues may be represented in computer in various ways, usually
by means of one-way lists or linear arrays
Representing a Queue Using an Array
A Queue is maintained by a linear array queue and two pointer variables: FRONT,
containing the location of front element of the queue and REAR, containing the
location of rear element of the queue. The condition FRONT=NULL indicates that
queue is empty. Whenever an element is deleted from the queue, the value of
FRONT is increased by 1. Similarly, whenever an element is added to queue, the
value of REAR is increased by 1.
Queue as a circular queue
It can be seen that after N insertions in a Queue represented by an array of N
elements, the rear element of Queue will occupy last part of array. This occurs even
though the queue itself may not contain many elements. Now, if we want to insert
an element ITEM into a queue, we have to move or rearrange the elements of entire
queue to the beginning of the queue. This procedure may be very expensive.
Another method to do so is to represent a queue as a circular queue i,e QUEUE[1]
comes after QUEUE[N] in array. With this assumption, we insert ITEM into queue
by assigning ITEM to QUEUE[1]. Thus instead of increasing REAR to N+1, we
reset REAR=1 and then assign
QUEUE[REAR]=ITEM
Similarly, If FRONT=N and an element of QUEUE is deleted, we reset FRONT=1
instead of increasing FRONT to N+1
Algorithm for Inserting in a QUEUE
• Algorithm: QINSERT(QUEUE, N, FRONT, REAR,ITEM)
This algorithm inserts an element in a linear queue
• Step 1:[Queue already filled]
If REAR=N, then:
Exit
• Step 2: If FRONT=NULL, then: [Queue initially empty]
Set FRONT:=1 and REAR:=1
Else:
Set REAR:=REAR+1
• Step 3: Set QUEUE[REAR]:=ITEM
• Step 4: Return
• Algorithm: QDELETE(QUEUE,N,FRONT,REAR,ITEM)
• This algorithm deletes an element from a queue
• Step 1: If FRONT=NULL, then:
Exit
• Step 2: Set ITEM:=QUEUE[FRONT]
• Step 3: If FRONT=REAR, then: [Empty Queue]
Set FRONT:=NULL and REAR:=NULL
Else:
Set FRONT:=FRONT+1
• Step 4: Return
Algorithm: QINSERT(QUEUE, N, FRONT, REAR,ITEM)
This algorithm inserts an element in a circular queue
If FRONT=1 and REAR=N or FRONT=REAR+1, then:
Exit
• Step 2: If FRONT=NULL, then: [Queue initially empty]
Set FRONT:=1 and REAR:=1
Else If REAR=N, then:
Set REAR:=1
Else:
Set REAR:=REAR+1
• Step 3: Set QUEUE[REAR]:=ITEM
• Step 4: Return
• Algorithm: QDELETE(QUEUE,N,FRONT,REAR,ITEM)
• This algorithm deletes an element from a circular queue
• Step 1: If FRONT=NULL, then:
Exit
• Step 2: Set ITEM:=QUEUE[FRONT]
• Step 3: If FRONT=REAR, then: [Empty Queue]
Set FRONT:=NULL and REAR:=NULL
Else If FRONT=N, then:
Set FRONT:=1
Else:
Set FRONT:=FRONT+1
• Step 4: Return
• Consider the following queue of characters where QUEUE is a
circular array which is allocated six memory cells
FRONT=2, REAR=4 QUEUE: _ A C D _ _
Describe the queue as following operations take place:
(a) F is added to queue
(b) Two letters are deleted
(c) K , L and M are added
(d) Two letters are deleted
(e) R is added to queue
(f) Two letters are deleted
(g) S is added to queue
(h) Two letters are deleted
(i) One letter is deleted
(j) One letter is deleted
• Solution:
(a) FRONT=2, REAR=5 QUEUE: _ A C D F_
(b) FRONT=4, REAR=5 QUEUE: _ _ _ D F _
(c) REAR=2, FRONT=4 QUEUE: L M _ D F K
(d) FRONT=6, REAR=2 QUEUE: L M _ _ _ K
(e) FRONT=6, REAR=3 QUEUE: L M R_ _ K
(f) FRONT=2, REAR=3 QUEUE: _M R _ _ _
(g) REAR=4, FRONT=2 QUEUE: _ M R S _ _
(h) FRONT=4, REAR=4 QUEUE: _ _ _ S _ _
(i) FRONT=REAR=0 [ As FRONT=REAR, queue is empty]
(j) Since FRONT=NULL, no deletion can take place. Underflow
occurred
• DEQUE(Double ended Queue)- A deque is a queue in which
elements can be added or removed at either end but not in the middle.
A deque is usually maintained by a circular array DEQUE with
pointers LEFT and RIGHT, which point to two ends of deque. The
elements extend from LEFT end to RIGHT end of deque. The term
circular comes from the fact that DEQUE[1] comes after DEQUE
[N].The condition LEFT=NULL will be used to indicate that a deque
is empty.
• There are two variations of a deque
• Input-restricted deque- It is a deque which allows insertions at only
one end of list but allows deletions at both ends of the list
• Output-restricted deque- It is a deque which allows deletions at only
one end of list but allows insertions at both ends of list
• Consider the following deque of characters where DEQUE is a circular array which is
allocated six memory cells.
LEFT=2, RIGHT=4 DEQUE: _ A,C,D, _ , _
• Describe deque while the following operation take place
(a) F is added to right of deque
LFET=2, RIGHT=5 _A C D F _ _
(b) Two letters on right are deleted
LEFT=2 RIGHT=3 _A C _ _ _ _
(c) K,L and M are added to the left of the deque
LEFT=5 RIGHT=3 KAC_ML
(d) One letter on left is deleted.
LEFT=6 RIGHT=3 KAC__L
(e) R is added to the left of deque.
LEFT=5 RIGHT= 3 KAC_RL
(f) S is added to right of deque
LEFT=5 RIGHT= 4 KACSRL
(g) T is added to the right of deque
Since LEFT= RIGHT+1 , the array is full and hence T cannot be added to the deque
Linked representation of the Queue
• A linked queue is a queue implemented as a linked list with two
pointer variables FRONT and REAR pointing to the nodes in the
front and rear of the queue. The INFO field of list hold the elements
of the queue and LINK field holds pointer to neighboring element of
queue.
• In case of insertion in linked queue, a node borrowed from AVAIL
list and carrying the item to be inserted is added as the last node of
linked list representing the queue. Rear pointer is updated to point to
last node just added to the list
• In case of deletion, first node of list pointed to by FRONT is deleted
and FRONT pointer is updated to point to next node in the list.
• Unlike the array representation, linked queue functions as a linear
queue and there is no need to view it as circular for efficient
management of space.
Algorithm:LINKQINSRT(INFO,LINK,FRONT,REAR,AVAIL,ITEM)
This algorithm inserts an item in linked list implementation
of
the queue
Step 1: If AVAIL=NULL,then:
Exit
Step 3: Set INFO[NEW]:=ITEM and LINK[NEW]:=NULL
Step 4: If FRONT=NULL, then:
Set FRONT=REAR=NEW
Else:
Set LINK[REAR]:=NEW and REAR:=NEW
Step 5: Return
Algorithm: LINKQDEL(INFO,LINK,FRONT,AVAIL,ITEM)
This algorithm deletes an element from the front of the
queue
• Step 1: If FRONT=NULL,then:
Write:’UNDERFLOW’
Exit
• Step 2: Set TEMP:=FRONT
• Step 3: Set ITEM:=INFO[FRONT]
• Step 4: Set FRONT:=LINK[FRONT]
• Step 5: Set LINK[TEMP]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=TEMP
• Step 6: Return
• Priority Queue- A priority queue is a collection of elements such that
each element has been assigned a priority and such that the order in
which elements are deleted and processed comes from following
rules:
• An element of higher priority is processed before any element of
lower priority
• Two elements of same priority are processed according to the order in
which they were added to queue
• An example of a priority queue is a time sharing system. Programs of
higher priority are processed first and programs with same priority
form a standard queue
One-way list representation of a priority queue
• One way to maintain a priority queue in memory is by means of a

one-way list
• Each node in list will contain three items of information: an

information field INFO, a priority number PRN and a link field LINK
• A node X precedes a node Y in list
– If X has higher priority than Y
– Or when both have same priority but X was added to list before Y
Algorithm:LKQINS(INFO,LINK,FRONT,PRN,AVAIL,ITEM, P)
This algorithm inserts an item in linked list implementation of priority queue
Step 1: If AVAIL=NULL,then:
Exit
Step 3: [Enter the data and priority of new node] Set INFO[NEW]:=ITEM and PRN[NEW]:=P
Step 4: Set PTR:=FRONT
Step 5: If PRN[PTR]>PRN[NEW], then
LINK[NEW]:=FRONT
FRONT:=NEW
Return
Step 5: Repeat while PTR≠NULL and PRN[PTR]<=PRN[NEW]
Set SAVE:=PTR
Set PTR:=LINK[PTR]
Step 6: If PRN[PTR]>PRN[NEW]
Set LINK[SAVE]:=NEW
Set LINK[NEW]:=PTR
Else:
Set LINK[SAVE]:=NEW
Set LINK[NEW]=NULL
Step 7: Return
• Another way to maintain a priority queue in memory is to use a
separate queue for each level of priority . Each such queue will appear
in its own circular array and must have its own pair of pointers,
FRONT and REAR.
• If each queue is allocated the same amount of space, a two
dimensional array QUEUE can be used instead of the linear arrays for
representing a priority queue. If K represents the row K of the queue,
FRONT[K] and REAR[K] are the front and rear indexes of the Kth
row.
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 AAA
2 BBB CCC XXX
Priority
3
4 FFF DDD EEE
5 GGG
Algorithm: QINSERT( QUEUE,N, FRONT, REAR,ITEM,K)
This algorithm inserts an element in a priority queue in a row with priority
K. N is the size of the Kth row.
If FRONT[K]=1 and REAR[K]=N or FRONT[K]=REAR[K]+1, then:
Exit
• Step 2: If FRONT[K]=NULL, then: [Queue initially empty]
Set FRONT[K]:=1 and REAR[K]:=1
Else If REAR[K]=N, then:
Set REAR[K]:=1
Else:
Set REAR[K]:=REAR[K]+1
• Step 3: Set QUEUE[K][REAR[K]]:=ITEM
• Step 4: Return
• Algorithm: QDELETE(QUEUE,N,FRONT,REAR,ITEM, START, MAXP)
• This algorithm deletes an element from a priority queue. MAXP is the
• maximum priority in the array
• Step 1: Set K=1 [Priority number]
• Step 2: Repeat while K<=MAXP and FRONT[K]=NULL
Set K=K+1
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: If K>MAXP , then:
Write:’UNDERFLOW’
Exit
• Step 4: Set ITEM:=QUEUE[K][FRONT[K]]
• Step 5: If FRONT[K]=REAR[K], then: [Empty Queue]
Set FRONT[K]:=NULL and REAR[K]:=NULL
Else If FRONT[K]=N, then:
Set FRONT[K]:=1
Else:
Set FRONT[K]:=FRONT[K]+1
• Step 5: Return
TREE
• A tree is a non-linear data structure mainly used to represent data
containing hierarchical relationship between elements. In hierarchical
data we have ancestor-descendent, superior-subordinate, whole-part,
or similar relationship among data elements.
• A (general) tree T is defined as a finite nonempty set of elements such
that
• There is a special node at the highest level of hierarchy called the
root,
• and the remaining elements , if any, are partitioned into disjoint sets
T1,T2,T3---Tn where each of these sets is a tree, called the sub tree of T.
• In other words, one may define a tree as a collection of nodes and
each node is connected to another node through a branch. The nodes
are connected in such a way that there are no loops in the tree and
there is a distinguished node called the root of the tree.
• Tree Terminology
• Parent node- If N is a node in T with left successor S1 and right successor S2, then N
is called father or parent of S1 and S2. Similarly, S1 is called left child of N and S2 is
called the right child of N. The child node is also called the descendant of a node N
• Siblings- The child nodes with same parent are called siblings
• Level of element- Each node in tree is assigned a level number. By definition, root
of the tree is at level 0;its children, if any, are at level 1; their children, if any, are at
level 2; and so on. Thus a node is assigned a level number one more than the level
number of its parent
• Depth/Height of Tree- The height or depth of tree is maximum number of
nodes in a branch . It is one more than the maximum level number
of the tree.
• Degree of an element- The degree of a node in a tree is number of children it has.
The degree of leaf node is zero.
• Degree of Tree- The degree of a tree is the maximum degree of its nodes.
• Edge- Line drawn from a node N of T to a successor is called an edge.
• Path- A sequence of edges is called an path
• Leaf- A terminal node of a tree is called leaf node
• Branch- Path ending in a leaf is called branch of the tree
• The most common form of tree maintained in computer is binary tree.
• Binary Tree- A binary tree T is defined as a finite set of elements,
called nodes, such that either:
– T is empty (called null tree or empty tree) or,
– T contains a distinguished node, R, called root of T and remaining
nodes of T form an ordered pair of disjoint binary trees T1 and T2
• Two trees T1 and T2 are called respectively left and right subtree of R
(root node of T). If T1 is nonempty, then its root is called left
successor of R. Similarly, If T2 is nonempty, then its root is called
right successor of R
Root Node
A
(Left Successor of A)
B C (Right Successor of A)
D E G H
F J K
L
• The nodes D,F,G,L,K are the terminal or leaf nodes
• Bianry trees are used to represent algebraic expressions involving
only binary operations, such as
• E= (a-b)/((c*d)+e)
• Each variable or constant in E appears as an internal node in T whose
left and right subtree correspond to operands of the expression
/
- +
a b * e
c d
• Before constructing a tree for an algebraic expression, we have to see
the precedence of the operators involved in the expression.
Difference between binary tree and a general tree
• A binary tree can be empty whereas a tree cannot be empty
• Each element in binary tree has at most two sub trees whereas each
element in a tree can have any number of sub trees
• The sub trees of each element in a binary tree are ordered. That is we
can distinguish between left and right sub trees. The sub trees in a tree
are unordered.
Properties of Binary Trees
• Each node of a binary tree T can have at most two children. Thus at level r of t,
there can be atmost 2r nodes.
• The number of nodes in a tree for given number of levels in a tree is
2n-1
• Depth of a tree T with n nodes is given by
Dn= log2n + 1
Dn ≈ log2n
• Complete Binary tree- A binary tree T is said to be complete if all its levels,
except possibly the last, have maximum number of possible nodes, and if all the
nodes at last level appear as far left as possible. Thus there is a unique complete tree
T with exactly n nodes.
• Extended Binary Trees: 2-Trees- A binary tree is said to be a 2-tree or an
extended binary tree if each node N has either 0 or 2 children. In such a case, nodes
with 2 children are called internal nodes, and nodes with 0 child are called external
nodes. The external and internal nodes are distinguished diagrammatically by using
circles for internal nodes and squares for external nodes
Representing Binary Trees in memory
• Binary trees can be represented
• using linked list
• using a single array called the sequential representation of tree
• Sequential representation of Binary Trees- This representation uses
only a single linear array Tree as follows:
• The root R of T is stored in TREE[1]
• If a node N occupies TREE[K], then its left child is stored in
TREE[2*K] and its right child is stored in TREE[2*K+1]
45
22 77
11 30 90
15 25 88
45
22
77
11
30
0 NULL
90
0 NULL
15
25
0 NULL
0 NULL
0 NULL
88
• It can be seen that a sequential representation of a binary tree requires
numbering of nodes; starting with nodes on level 1, then on level 2
and so on. The nodes are numbered from left to right .
• It is an ideal case for representation of a complete binary tree and in
this case no space is wasted. However for other binary trees, most of
the space remains unutilized. As can be seen in the figure, we require
14 locations in array even though the tree has only 9 nodes. If null
entries for successors of the terminal nodes are included, we would
actually require 29 locations instead of 14.Thus sequential
representation is usually inefficient unless binary tree is complete or
nearly complete
Linked representation of Binary Tree
• In linked representation, Tree is maintained in memory by means of
three parallel arrays, INFO, LEFT and RIGHT and a pointer variable
ROOT. Each node N of T will correspond to a location K such that
INFO[K] contains data at node N. LEFT[K] contains the location of
left child of node N and RIGHT[K] contains the location of right
child of node N. ROOT will contain location of root R of Tree. If any
subtree is empty, corresponding pointer will contain null value. If the
tree T itself is empty, then ROOT will contain null value
ROOT
A
B C
D E F G
H I J
Traversing Binary Trees
There are three standard ways of traversing a binary tree T with root
R. These are preorder, inorder and postorder traversals
• Preorder
PROCESS the root R
Traverse the left sub tree of R in preorder
Traverse the right sub tree of R in preorder
• Inorder
Traverse the left sub tree of R in inorder
Process the root R
Traverse the right sub tree of R in inorder
• Postorder
Traverse the left sub tree of R in postorder
Traverse the right sub tree of R in postorder
Process the root R
• The difference between the algorithms is the time at which the root R
is processed. In pre algorithm, root R is processed before sub trees are
traversed; in the in algorithm, root R is processed between traversals
of sub trees and in post algorithm , the root is processed after the sub
trees are traversed.
A
B C
D E F
• Preorder Traversal: ABDECF

• Inorder Traversal: DBEACF
• Postorder Traversal : DEBFCA
• All the traversal algorithms assume a binary tree T maintained in
memory by linked representation
TREE(INFO,LEFT,RIGHT,ROOT)
• All algorithms use a variable PTR(pointer) which will contain the
location of the node N currently being scanned. LEFT[N] denotes the
left child of node N and RIGHT[N] denotes the right child of N. All
algorithms use an array STACK which will hold the addresses of
nodes for further processing.
• Algorithm: PREORD(INFO, LEFT, RIGHT, ROOT)
This algorithm traverses the tree in preorder
• Step 1: Set TOP:=1, STACK[1]:=NULL and PTR:= ROOT
• Step 2: Repeat Step 3 to 5 while PTR≠NULL
• Step 3: Apply PROCESS to INFO[PTR]
• Step 4: [Right Child ?]
If RIGHT[PTR] ≠ NULL, then:
Set TOP:=TOP + 1
Set STACK[TOP]:= RIGHT[PTR]
• Step 5: [Left Child ?]
If LEFT[PTR] ≠ NULL, then:
Set PTR:=LEFT[PTR]
Else:
Set PTR:=STACK[TOP]
Set TOP:=TOP-1
• Step 6: Return
• Algorithm: INORD (INFO, LEFT,RIGHT, ROOT)
• Step 1: Set TOP:=1, STACK[1]:=NULL and PTR:=ROOT
• Step 2: Repeat while PTR ≠ NULL:
(A) Set TOP:=TOP + 1 and STACK[TOP]:= PTR
(B) Set PTR:=LEFT[PTR]
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: Set PTR:=STACK[TOP] and TOP:=TOP -1
• Step 4: Repeat Step 5 to 7 while PTR ≠ NULL
• Step 5: Apply PROCESS to INFO[PTR]
• Step 6: If RIGHT[PTR] ≠ NULL, then:
(A) Set PTR := RIGHT[PTR]
(B) GO TO step 2
• Step 8: Return
• Algorithm : POSTORD( INFO, LEFT, RIGHT, ROOT)
• Step 1: Set TOP:=1, STACK[1]:=NULL and PTR:=ROOT
• Step 2: Repeat Step 3 to 5 while PTR≠ NULL
• Step 3: Set TOP:=TOP +1 and STACK[TOP]:=PTR
• Step 4: If RIGHT[PTR]≠ NULL, then:
Set TOP:=TOP +1 and STACK[TOP]:= - RIGHT[PTR]
• Step 5: Set PTR:=LEFT[PTR]
• Step 7: Repeat while PTR>0:
(A) Apply PROCESS to INFO[PTR]
(B) Set PTR:=STACK[TOP] and TOP:=TOP -1
[End of Loop]
• Step 8: If PTR<0, then:
(a) Set PTR:=-PTR
(b) Go to Step 2
• Step 9: Exit
Problem: Create a tree from the given traversals
preorder: F A E K C D H G B
inorder: E A C K F H D B G
Solution: The tree is drawn from the root as follows:
(a) The root of tree is obtained by choosing the first node of preorder.
Thus F is the root of the proposed tree
(b) The left child of the tree is obtained as follows:
(a) Use the inorder traversal to find the nodes to the left and right of
the root node selected from preorder. All nodes to the left of root
node(in this case F) in inorder form the left subtree of the root(in
this case E A C K )
(b) All nodes to the right of root node (in this case F ) in inorder
form the right subtree of the root (H D B G)
(c) Follow the above procedure again to find the subsequent roots
and their subtrees on left and right.
• F is the root Nodes on left subtree( left of F):E A C K (from inorder)
Nodes on right subtree(right of F):H D B G(from
inorder)
• The root of left subtree:
• From preorder: A E K C , Thus the root of left subtree is A
• D H G B , Thus the root of right subtree is D
• Creating left subtree first:
From inorder: elements of left subtree of A are: E (root of left)
elements of right subtree of A are: C K (root of right)
Thus tree till now is:
F
A D
E K
C
As K is to the left of C in preorder
• Creating the right subtree of F
• The root node is D
• From inorder, the nodes on the left of D are: H (left root of D)
the nodes on the right of D are: B G (right root of D)
Thus the tree is:
A D
E K H G
C B
F
A D
E K H G
C B
Threads: Inorder Threading
• Considering linked list representation of a binary tree, it can be seen
that half of the entries in pointer fields LEFT and RIGHT will contain
null entries. This space may be more efficiently used by replacing the
null entries by special pointers called Threads which point to nodes
higher in tree. Such trees are called Threaded trees.
• The threads in a threaded tree are usually indicated by dotted lines . In
computer memory, threads may be represented by negative integers
when ordinary pointers are denoted by positive integers.
• There are many ways to thread a binary tree T but each threading will
correspond to a particular traversal of T. Trees can be threaded using
one-way threading or two-way threading. Unless otherwise stated,
threading will correspond to inorder traversal of T.
• Accordingly, in one-way threading, a thread will appear in right null
field of a node and will point to the next node in inorder traversal of T
• In two-way threading of T, a thread will also appear in the LEFT
field of a node and will point to the preceding node in inorder
traversal of T
• A
B C
D E G H
F J K
One-way inorder Threading

Inorder traversal: D B F E A G C L J H K
• A
B C
D E G H
F J K
Two-way inorder Threading

• Binary Search Tree- If T is a binary tree, then T is called a binary search tree or
binary sorted tree if each node N of T has the following property:
– The Value of N is greater than every value in left sub tree of N
– The value at N is less than or equal to every value in right sub tree of N
• The inorder traversal of BST gives sorted numbers
For example: The following numbers create a BST as:
• 3 5 9 1 2 6 8 10
3
1 5
2 9
6 10
8
• Binary search tree is one of the most important data structures in
computer science. This structure enables one to search for and find an
element with an average running time
f(n)=O(log2 n )
• It also enables one to easily insert and delete elements. This structure
contrasts with following structures:
• Sorted linear array- here one can find the element with a
running time of O(log2 n ) but it is expensive to insert and
delete
• Linked list- Here one can easily insert and delete but searching
is expensive with running time of O(n)
Searching and Inserting in a BST
• Algorithm: This algorithm searches for ITEM in a tree and inserts it if
not present in tree
• Step 1: Compare ITEM with root node N of Tree
(i) If ITEM < N, proceed to left child of N
(ii) If ITEM >= N, proceed to right child of N
• Step 2: Repeat step 1 until one of the following occurs:
(i) If ITEM = N, then:
Write: ‘Search successful’
(ii) Empty sub tree found indicating search unsuccessful.
Insert item in place of empty sub tree
Algorithm: INSBT(INFO, LEFT, RIGHT, AVAIL, ITEM, LOC)
This algorithm finds the location LOC of an ITEM in T or adds ITEM as a new
node in T at location LOC
Step 1: Call FIND(INFO, LEFT, RIGHT, ROOT, ITEM, LOC, PAR)
Step 2: If LOC ≠ NULL, then
Return
Step 3: [Copy item into new node in AVAIL list]
(a) If AVAIL=NULL, then:
Return
(b) Set NEW:=AVAIL, AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL] and
INFO[NEW]:=ITEM
(c) Set LEFT[NEW]:=NULL and RIGHT[NEW]:=NULL
Step 4:[Add ITEM to tree]
If PAR=NULL, then:
Set ROOT:=NEW
Else If ITEM<INFO[PAR], then:
Set LEFT[PAR]:=NEW
Else:
Set RIGHT[PAR]:=NEW
Step 5: Return
Algorithm: FIND(INFO,LEFT,RIGHT,ROOT,ITEM,LOC,PAR)
This algorithm finds the location LOC of ITEM in T and also the location PAR of the parent of
ITEM. There are three special cases
(a) LOC=NULL and PAR=NULL will indicate tree is empty
(b) LOC≠ NULL and PAR=NULL will indicate that ITEM is the root of T
( c) LOC=NULL and PAR ≠ NULL will indicate that ITEM is not in T and can be added to T as
a child of node N with location PAR
Step 1: If ROOT= NULL , then:
Set LOC:=NULL and PAR:=NULL
Return
Step 2: If ITEM=INFO[ROOT], then:
Set LOC:=ROOT and PAR:=NULL
Write: ’Item is the root of the tree’
Return
Step3: If ITEM < INFO[ROOT], then:
Set PTR:=LEFT[ROOT] and SAVE:=ROOT
Else:
Set PTR:=RIGHT[ROOT] and SAVE:= ROOT
Step 4: Repeat while PTR ≠ NULL:
If ITEM=INFO[PTR] ,then:
Set LOC:=PTR and PAR:=SAVE
Write: ‘ the location of the node in tree is’, LOC
Return
If ITEM< INFO[PTR] , then:
Set SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=LEFT[PTR]
Else:
Set SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=RIGHT[PTR]
Step 5: [Search unsuccessful] Set LOC:=NULL and PAR:=SAVE
Step 6: Return
• Deletion in a Binary Search Tree- Deletion in a BST uses a
procedure FIND to find the location of node N which contains ITEM
and also the location of parent node P(N). The way N is deleted from
the tree depends primarily on the number of children of node N. There
are three cases:
• Case 1: N has no children. Then N is deleted from T by simply
replacing the location P(N) by null pointer
• Case 2: N has exactly one child. Then N is deleted from T by simply
replacing the location of N by location of the only child of N
• Case 3: N has two children. Let S(N) denote the inorder successor of
N. Then N is deleted from T by first deleting S(N) from T(by
using Case 1 or Case 2) and then replacing node N in T by
node S(N)
• Case 1: When node to be deleted does not have two children
Algorithm: DELA( INFO, LEFT,RIGHT,ROOT,LOC,PAR)
This procedure deletes node N at location LOC where N
does not have two children. PAR gives the location of
parent node of N or else PAR=NULL indicating N is the
root node. Pointer CHILD gives the location of only child
of N
• Step 1: If LEFT[LOC]=NULL and RIGHT[LOC]=NULL, then:
Set CHILD=NULL
Else If LEFT[LOC]≠NULL, then:
Set CHILD:=LEFT[LOC]
Else
Set CHILD:=RIGHT[LOC]
• Step 2: If PAR ≠ NULL, then:
If LOC=LEFT[PAR] , then:
Set LEFT[PAR]:=CHILD
Else:
Set RIGHT[PAR]:=CHILD
Else:
Set ROOT:=CHILD
• Step 3: Return
• Case 2: When node to be deleted has two children
• Algorithm: DELB( INFO, LEFT, RIGHT, ROOT, LOC, PAR, SUC, PARSUC)
This procedure deletes node N at location LOC where N have two children. PAR
gives the location of parent node of N or else PAR=NULL indicating N is the
root node. Pointer SUC gives the location of in order successor of N and PARSUC
gives the location of parent of in order successor
Step 1: (a) Set PTR:=RIGHT[LOC] and SAVE:=LOC
(b) Repeat while LEFT[PTR]≠NULL
Set SAVE:=PTR and PTR:=LEFT[PTR]
[End of Loop]
(c ) Set SUC:=PTR and PARSUC:=SAVE
Step 2: CALL DELA(INFO,LEFT,RIGHT, ROOT,SUC,PARSUC)
Step 3: (a) If PAR ≠ NULL, then:
If LOC = LEFT [PAR], then:
Set LEFT[PAR]:=SUC
Else:
Set RIGHT[PAR]:=SUC
Else:
Set ROOT:=SUC
(b) Set LEFT[SUC]:=LEFT[LOC] and
Set RIGHT[SUC]:=RIGHT[LOC]
• Step 4: Return
Heap
• Suppose H is a complete binary tree with n elements. Then H is called
a heap or a maxheap if each node N of H has the property that value
of N is greater than or equal to value at each of the children of N.
• 97
88 95
66 55 95 48
66 35 48 55 62 77 25 38
18 40 30 26 24
• Analogously, a minheap is a heap such that value at N is less than or
equal to the value of each of its children. Heap is more efficiently
implemented through array rather than linked list. In a heap, the
location of parent of a node PTR is given by PTR/2
Inserting an element in a Heap
Suppose H is a heap with N elements, and suppose an ITEM of
information is given. We insert ITEM into the heap H as follows:
• First adjoin the ITEM at the end of H so that H is still a complete tree
but not necessarily a heap
• Then let the ITEM rise to its appropriate place in H so that H is finally
a heap
• Algorithm: INSHEAP( TREE, N, ITEM)
A heap H with N elements is stored in the array TREE and an ITEM of
information is given. This procedure inserts the ITEM as the new element
of H. PTR gives the location of ITEM as it rises in the tree and PAR
denotes the parent of ITEM
• Step 1: Set N:= N +1 and PTR:=N
• Step 2: Repeat Step 3 to 6 while PTR > 1
Set PAR:=PTR/2
If ITEM ≤ TREE[PAR], then:
Set TREE[PTR]:=ITEM
Return
Set TREE[PTR]:=TREE[PAR]
Set PTR:=PAR
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: Set TREE[1]:=ITEM
• Step 4: Return
Deleting the root node in a heap
Suppose H is a heap with N elements and suppose we want to delete
the root R of H. This is accomplished as follows:
• Assign the root R to some variable ITEM
• Replace the deleted node R by last node L of H so that H is still a
complete tree but not necessarily a heap
• Let L sink to its appropriate place in H so that H is finally a heap
• Algorithm: DELHEAP( TREE, N , ITEM )
A heap H with N elements is stored in the array TREE.
This algorithm assigns the root TREE[1] of H to the
variable ITEM and then reheaps the remaining elements.
The variable LAST stores the value of the original last
node of H. The pointers PTR, LEFT and RIGHT give the
location of LAST and its left and right children as LAST
sinks into the tree.
Step 1: Set ITEM:=TREE[1]
Step 2: Set LAST:=TREE[N] and N:=N-1
Step 3: Set PTR:=1, LEFT:=2 and RIGHT:=3
Step 4: Repeat step 5 to 7 while RIGHT ≤ N:
Step 5: If LAST ≥ TREE[LEFT] and LAST ≥ TREE [RIGHT] , then:
Set TREE[PTR]:=LAST
Return
Step 6: If TREE[RIGHT]≤ TREE[LEFT], then:
Set TREE[PTR]:=TREE[LEFT]
Set PTR:=LEFT
Else:
Set TREE[PTR]:=TREE[RIGHT] and PTR:=RIGHT
Set LEFT:= 2* PTR and RIGHT:=LEFT + 1
[End of Loop]
Step 7: If LEFT=N and If LAST < TREE[LEFT], then:
Set TREE[PTR]:=TREE[LEFT] and Set PTR:=LEFT
Step 8: Set TREE[PTR]:=LAST
Return
90
80 85
60 50 75 70
Application of Heap
HeapSort- One of the important applications of heap is sorting of an
array using heapsort method. Suppose an array A with N elements is
to be sorted. The heapsort algorithm sorts the array in two phases:
• Phase A: Build a heap H out of the elements of A
• Phase B: Repeatedly delete the root element of H
Since the root element of heap contains the largest element of the
heap, phase B deletes the elements in decreasing order. Similarly,
using heapsort in minheap sorts the elements in increasing order as
then the root represents the smallest element of the heap.
• Algorithm: HEAPSORT(A,N)
An array A with N elements is given. This algorithm sorts
the elements of the array
• Step 1: [Build a heap H]
Repeat for J=1 to N-1:
Call INSHEAP(A, J, A[J+1])
[End of Loop]
• Step 2: [Sort A repeatedly deleting the root of H]
Repeat while N > 1:
(a) Call DELHEAP( A, N, ITEM)
(b) Set A[N + 1] := ITEM [Store the elements deleted from
the heap]
[End of loop]
• Step 3: Exit
• Problem: Create a Heap out of the following data:
jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sept oct nov dec
• Solution:
sep
oct jun
mar nov jan jul
apr aug feb may dec

AVL TREE
• The efficiency of many important operations on trees is related to the
height of the tree –for example searching, insertion and deletion in a
BST are all O(height). In general, the relation between the height of
the tree and the number of nodes of the tree is O (log2n) except in the
case of right skewed or left skewed BST in which height is O(n). The
right skewed or left skewed BST is one in which the elements in the
tree are either on the left or right side of the root node.
A A
B B
C C
D D
E E
Right-skewed Left-skewed
• For efficiency sake, we would like to guarantee that h remains
O(log2n). One way to do this is to force our trees to be height-
balanced.
• Method to check whether a tree is height balanced or not is as
follows:
– Start at the leaves and work towards the root of the tree.
– Check the height of the subtrees(left and right) of the node.
– A tree is said to be height balanced if the difference of heights of
its left and right subtrees of each node is equal to 0, 1 or -1
• Example:
• Check whether the shown tree is balanced or not
A
B C
D
Sol: Starting from the leaf nodes D and C, the height of left and right
subtrees of C and D are each 0. Thus their difference is also 0
• Check the height of subtrees of B
Height of left subtree of B is 1 and height of right subtree of B is 0.
Thus the difference of two is 1 Thus B is not perfectly balanced but
the tree is still considered to be height balanced.
• Check the height of subtrees of A
Height of left subtree of A is 2 while the height of its right subtree is
1. The difference of two heights still lies within 1.
• Thus for all nodes the tree is a balanced binary tree.
• Check whether the shown tree is balanced or not
A
B F
Ans No as node B is not balanced as difference of heights of left and

right subtrees is 3-0 i.e more than 1.
Height-balanced Binary tree (AVL Tree)
The disadvantage of a skewed binary search tree is that the worst case
time complexity of a search is O(n). In order to overcome this
disadvantage, it is necessray to maintain the binary search tree to be
of balanced height. Two Russian mathematicians , G.M. Adel and
E.M. Landis gave a technique to balance the height of a binary tree
and the resulting tree is called AVL tree.
Definition: An empty binary tree is an AVL tree. A non empty binary
tree T is an AVL tree iff given TL and TR to be the left and right
subtrees of T and h(TL) and h(TR) be the heights of subtrees TL and TR
respectively, TL and TR are AVL trees and |h(TL)-h(TR)| ≤ 1.
|h(TL)-h(TR)| is also called the balance factor (BF) and for an AVL tree
the balance factor of a node can be either -1, 0 or 1
An AVL search tree is a binary search tree which is an AVL tree.
• A node in a binary tree that does not contain the BF of 0, 1 or -1, it is
said to be unbalanced. If one inserts a new node into a balanced
binary tree at the leaf, then the possible changes in the status of the
node are as follows:
• The node was either left or right heavy and has now become balanced.
A node is said to be left heavy if number of nodes in its left subtree
are one more than the number of nodes in its right subtree.. In other
words, the difference in heights is 1. Similar is the case with right
heavy node where number of nodes in right subtree are one more than
the number of nodes in left subtree
• The node was balanced and has now become left or right heavy
• The node was heavy and the new node has been inserted in the heavy
subtree, thus creating an unbalanced subtree. Such a node is called a
critical node.
Rotations- Inserting an element in an AVL search tree in its first phase
is similar to that of the one used in a binary search tree. However, if
after insertion of the element, the balance factor of any node in a
binary search tree is affected so as to render the binary search tree
unbalanced, we resort to techniques called Rotations to restore the
balance of the search tree.
• To perform rotations, it is necessary to identify the specific node A
whose BF (balance factor) is neither 0,1 or -1 and which is nearest
ancestor to the inserted node on the path from inserted node to the
root.
• The rebalancing rotations are classified as LL, LR, RR and RL based
on the position of the inserted node with reference to A
LL rotation: Inserted node in the left subtree of the left subtree of A
RR rotation: Inserted node in the right subtree of the right subtree of A
LR rotation: Inserted node in the right subtree of the left subtree of A
RL rotation: Inserted node in the left subtree of the right subtree of A
• LL Rotation- This rotation is done when the element is inserted in the left subtree
of the left subtree of A. To rebalance the tree, it is rotated so as to allow B to be the
root with BL and A to be its left subtree and right child and BR and AR to be the left and
right subtrees of A. The rotation results in a balanced tree.
• RR Rotation-This rotation is applied if the new element is inserted right
subtree of right subtree of A. The rebalancing rotation pushes B upto the root with A as
its left child and BR as its right subtree and AL and BL as the left and right subtrees of A
LR and RL rotations- The balancing methodology of LR and RL rotations are similar in
nature but are mirror images of one another. Amongst the rotations, LL and RR rotations are
called as single rotations and LR and RL are known as double rotations since LR is
accomplished by RR followed by LL rotation and RL can be accomplished by LL followed by
RR rotation. LR rotation is applied when the new element is inserted in right subtree of the
left subtree of A. RL rotation is applied when the new element is inserted in the left subtree
of right subtree of A
LR Rotation- this rotation is a combination of RR rotation followed by
LL rotation.
A A C
B AR C AR B A
RR LL
BL C B CR BL CL CR AR
CL CR BL CL x
x x
RL Rotation-This rotation occurs when the new node is inserted in left
subtree of right subtree of A. It’s a combination of LL followed by
RR
A C
RL
T1 B A B
C T4 T1 T2 T3 T4
T2 T3 NEW
NEW
• RL Rotation- This rotation occurs when the new node is inserted in right subtree of
left subtree of A.
A A
T1 B T1 C
C T4 LLT2 B
T2 T3 NEW T3 T4
NEW RR
C
A B
T1 T2 T3 T4
NEW
Problem: Construct an AVL search tree by inserting the following
elements in the order of their occurrence
64, 1, 14, 26, 13, 110, 98, 85
Sol:
Deletion in an AVL search Tree
• The deletion of element in AVL search tree leads to imbalance in the
tree which is corrected using different rotations. The rotations are
classified according to the place of the deleted node in the tree.
• On deletion of a node X from AVL tree, let A be the closest ancestor
node on the path from X to the root node with balance factor of +2 or
-2 .To restore the balance, the deletion is classified as L or R
depending on whether the deletion occurred on the left or right sub
tree of A.
• Depending on value of BF(B) where B is the root of left or right sub
tree of A, the R or L rotation is further classified as R0, R1 and
R-1 or L0, L1 and L-1. The L rotations are the mirror images of their
corresponding R rotations.
R0 Rotation- This rotation is applied when the BF of B is 0 after deletion of the
node
R1 Rotation- This rotation is applied when the BF of B is 1
R-1 Rotation- This rotation is applied when the BF of B is -1
• L rotations are the mirror images of R rotations. Thus L0 will be
applied when the node is deleted from the left subtree of A and the BF
of B in the right subtree is 0
• Similarly, L1and L-1 will be applied on deleting a node from left
subtree of A and if the BF of root node of right subtree of A is either 1
or -1 respectively.
GRAPH
• Graph- A graph G consists of :
– A set V of elements called the nodes (or points or vertices)
– A set E of edges such that each edge e in E is identified with a
unique (unordered) pair [u,v] of nodes in V, denoted by e=[u,v]
The nodes u and v are called the end points of e or adjacent nodes
or neighbors.
• The edge in a graph can be directed or undirected depending on
whether the direction of the edge is specified or not.
• A graph in which each edge is directed is called a directed graph or
digraph.
• A graph in which each edge is undirected is called undirected graph.
• A graph which contains both directed and undirected edges is called
mixed graph.
• Let G=(V,E) be a graph and e є E be a directed edge associated with
ordered pair of vertices (v1,v2). Then the edge e is said to be initiating
from v1 to v2. v1 is the starting and v2 is the termination of the edge e.
• An edge in a graph that joins a vertex to itself is called a sling or a loop
• The degree of a node or vertex u is written deg(u) is the number of edges
containing u. The degree of a loop is 2
• In a directed graph for any vertex v the number of edges which have v as their
initial vertex is called the out-degree of v. The number of edges which have v as
their terminal vertex is called the in-degree of v. The sum of in-degree and out-
degree of a vertex is called the degree of that vertex. If deg(u)=0, then u is called
an isolated node and a graph containing only isolated node is called a null graph
• The maximum degree of a graph G, denoted by Δ(G), is the maximum degree of
its vertices, and the minimum degree of a graph, denoted by δ(G), is the minimum
degree of its vertices.
• A sequence of edges of a digraph such that the terminal vertex of the edge
sequences in the initial vertex of the next edge, if exist, is called a path
E={(v1,v2),(v2,v3),(v3,v4)}
• A path P of length n from a vertex u to vertex v is defined as sequence of n+1
nodes
P=(v0,v1,v2--------------vn)
such that u=v0; vi-1 is adjacent to vi for i=1,2,3----------n; and v=vn.
• The path is said to be closed or a circular path if v0=vn.
• The path is said to be simple if all nodes are distinct, with the exception that v0 may
equal vn; that is P is simple if the nodes v0,v1,v2--------vn-1 are distinct and the nodes
v1,v2------------vn are distinct.
• A cycle is closed simple path with length 2 or more. A cycle of length k is called a
k-cycle.
• A graph G is said to be connected if and only if there is a simple path between any
two nodes in G. In other words, a graph is connected if it does not contain any
isolated vertices. A graph that is not connected can be divided into connected
components (disjoint connected subgraphs). For example, this graph is made of
three connected components
• A graph G is said to be complete if every node u in G is adjacent to every node v in
G. A complete graph with n vertices (denoted Kn) is a graph with n vertices in
which each vertex is connected to each of the others (with one edge between each
pair of vertices). In other words, there is path from every vertex to every other
vertex. Clearly such a graph is also a connected graph.
• A complete graph with n nodes will have n(n-1)/2 edges
• A connected graph without any cycles is called a tree graph or free graph or simply
a tree.
• Here are the five complete graphs:
• A graph is said to be labeled if its edges are assigned data. G is said to
be weighted if each edge e in G is assigned a non negative numerical
value w (e) called the weight or length of e.
• In such a case, each path P in G is assigned a weight or length which
is the sum of the weights of the edges along the path P. If no weight is
specified, it is assumed that each edge has the weight w (e) =1
• Multiple edges- Distinct edges e and e’ are called multiple edges if
they connect the same endpoints, that is, if e=[u, v] and e’=[u, v].
Such edges are also called parallel edges and a graph that contains
these multiple or parallel edges is called a multigraph. Also a graph
containing loops is also not a simple graph but a multigraph.
Directed Multi Graph
Weighted Graph
• Representation of a graph-There are two main ways of representing a
graph in memory. These are:
• Sequential
• Linked List
• Sequential Representation- The graphs can be represented as matrices
in sequential representation. There are two most common matrices.
These are:
• Adjacency Matrix
• Incidence Matrix
• The adjacency matrix is a sequence matrix with one row and one
column devoted to each vertex. The values of the matrix are 0 or 1. A
value of 1 for row i and column j implies that edge eij exists between vi
and vj vertices. A value of 0 implies that there is no edge between the
vertex vi and vj. Thus, for a graph with v1,v2,v3………..vn vertices, the
adjacency matrix A=[aij] of the graph G is the n x n matrix and can be
defined as:
1 if vi is adjacent to vj (if there is an edge between vi and vj)
• aij =
0 if there is no edge between vi and vj
Such a matrix that contains entries of only 0 or 1 is called a bit matrix

or Boolean matrix.
• The adjacency matrix of the graph G does depend on the ordering of
the nodes in G that is different ordering of the nodes may result in a
different adjacency matrix. However the matrices resulting from
different orderings are closely related in that one can be obtained from
another by simply interchanging rows and columns
• Suppose G is an undirected graph. Then the adjacency matrix A of G
will be a symmetric matrix i.e one in which aij=aji for every i and j.
• If G is a multigraph, then the adjacency matrix of G is the m x m
matrix A=(aij) defined by setting aij equal to the number of edges from
vi to vj.
• Consider an Adjacency matrix A representing a graph. Then A2,
A3……..Ak of Adjacency matrix A represent the matrices with path
lengths 2,3……… k respectively. In other words, if
ak(i,j)= the ijth entry of matrix Ak
then this entry represents the number of paths of length k from node vi
to vj. .If now we represent a matrix Br as
Br=A+A2+A3………Ak
then each entry of Br represent the number of paths of lengths r or less
than r from node vi to vj
Example :Consider the graph G. Suppose the nodes are stored in memory in a linear
array DATA as follows:
DATA: X,Y,Z,W
Then we assume that the ordering of the nodes in G as as v1=X, v2=Y,v3=Z, v4=W. The
adjacency matrix A of G is
0001
A= 1011
1001
0010
• Path Matrix- Let G be a simple directed graph with m nodes,
v1,v2,v3………..vm. The path matrix or reachability matrix of G is the
m-square matrix P=(pij) defined as:
1 if there is a path from vi to vj
Pij=
0 Otherwise
Suppose there is a path from vi to vj. Then there must be a simple

path from vi to vj when vi ≠ vj or there must be a cycle from vi to vj
when vi = vj. Since G has only m nodes such a simple path must be
of length m-1 or less or such a cycle must have length m or less.
• Proposition:
• Let A be the adjacency matrix and let P=(pij) be the path matrix of a
digraph G. Then Pij=1 if and only if there is a nonzero number in the
Adjacency matrix in the ijth entry of the matrix.
Bm = A+ A2+ A3 +……. + Am
• Linked representation of the graph- The sequential representation of
the graph in memory i.e the representation of graph by adjacency
matrix has a number of major drawbacks
• It may be difficult to insert and delete nodes in Graph. This is because
the size of array may need to be changed and the nodes may need to
reordered which can lead to many changes in the matrix.
• Also if the number of edges are very less, then, the matrix will be
sparse and there will be wastage of memory.
Accordingly, graph is usually represented in memory by a
linked representation also called an adjacency structure.
• Specifically, the linked representation of graph contains two lists (or
files), a node list NODE and an edge list EDGE, as follows:
• Node list- Each element in the list NODE will correspond to a node in
G(Graph) and it will be a record of the form:
NODE NEXT ADJ
• Here NODE will be the name or key value of the node, NEXT
will be a pointer to the next node in the list NODE and ADJ will
be a pointer to the first element in the adjacency list of the node,
which is maintained in the list EDGE. The last rectangle indicates
that there may be other information in the record such as indegree
of the node, the outdegree of the node, status of the node during
execution etc.
• The nodes themselves will be maintained as a linked list and
hence will have a pointer variable START for the beginning of the
list and a pointer variable AVAILN for the list of available space
• Edge List- Each element in the list EDGE will correspond to an
edge of graph and will be a record of the form:
• DEST LINK
• The field DEST will point to the location in the list NODE of the
destination or terminal node of the edge. The field LINK will link
together the edges with the same initial node, that is, the nodes in the
same adjacency list. The third area indicates that there may be other
information in the record corresponding to the edge, such as a field
EDGE containing the labeled data of the edge when graph is a
labeled graph, a field weight WEIGHT containing the weight of the
edge when graph is a weighted graph and so on.
Node Adjacency List
A D A B,C,D
E C
B C,E
B C
C
C
D
E
• Traversing a Graph- There are two standard ways of traversing a
graph
• Breadth-first search
• Depth-First Search
• The breadth-first search will use a queue as an auxiliary structure to
hold nodes for future processing, and analogously, the depth-first
search will use a stack
• During the execution of algorithm, each node N of G (Graph) will be
in one of the three states, called the status of N as follows:
• STATUS=1: (Ready state) The initial state of the node N
• STATUS=2: (Waiting state) The node N is one the queue or stack,
waiting to be processed
• STATUS=3: (Processed state). The node N has been processed
• The general idea behind a breadth-first search beginning at a starting
node A as follows:
• Examine the starting node A
• Examine all neighbors of A
• Then examine all neighbors of neighbors of A and so on.
• Keep track of neighbors of node and guarantee that no node is
processed more than once. This is accomplished by using a queue to
hold nodes that are waiting to be processed and by using a field
STATUS which tells the status of any node.
• The breadth-first search algorithm helps in finding the minimum path
from source to destination node
• Algorithm: This algorithm executes a breadth-first search on a graph
G beginning at a starting node A. This algorithm can
process only those nodes that are reachable from A. To
examine all the nodes in graph G, the algorithm must be
modified so that it begins again with another node that is
still in the ready state
• Step 1: Initialize all nodes to the ready state (STATUS=1)
• Step 2: Put the starting node A in Queue and change its status to the
waiting state (STATUS=2)
• Step 3: Repeat Steps 4 and 5 until Queue is empty:
• Step 4: Remove the front node N of Queue. Process N and change the
status of N to the processed state (STATUS=3)
• Step 5: Add to the rear of Queue all the neighbors of N that are in the
ready state ( STATUS=1) , and change their status to the
waiting state (STATUS=2)
• Step 6: Exit
• Algorithm: This algorithm executes a depth-first search on a graph G
beginning at a starting node A. This algorithm can
process only those nodes that are reachable from A. To
examine all the nodes in graph G, the algorithm must be
modified so that it begins again with another node that is
still in the ready state
Step 1: Initialize all nodes to the ready state (STATUS=1)
Step 2: Push the starting node A onto STACK and change its status to
the waiting state (STATUS=2)
Step 3: Repeat steps 4 and 5 until STACK is empty
Step 4: Pop the top node N of STACK. Process N and change its status
to the processed state (STATUS=3)
Step 5: Push onto the STACK all the neighbors of N that are still in the
ready state (STATUS=1) and change their status to the waiting
state (STATUS=2)
Step 6: Exit
Difference between BFS and DFS
• The BFS uses a queue for its implementation whereas DFS uses a
stack
• BFS is mostly used for finding the shortest distance between the two
nodes in a graph whereas DFS is mostly used to find the nodes that
are reachable from a particular node.
• BFS is called breadth first search as first it processes a node then its
immediate neighbors and so on. In other words, FIFO queue puts all
its newly generated nodes at the end of a queue which means that
shallow nodes are expanded before the deeper nodes. BFS traverses a
graph breadth- wise. DFS first traverses the graph till the last
reachable node then back tracks the nodes for processing. In other
words, DFS expands deepest unexpanded node first first traverses the
depth of the graph.
• BFS ensures that all the nearest possibilities are explored first
whereas DFS keeps going as far as it can then goes back to look at
other options
• Dijkstra’s Algorithm- This technique is used to determine the shortest
path between two arbitrary vertices in a graph.
• Let weight w(vi ,vj) is associated with every edge (vi,vj) in a given
graph. Furthermore, the weights are such that the total weight from
vertex vi to vertex vk through vertex vj is w(vi,vj) + w(vj,vk). Using
this technique, the weight from a vertex vs (starting of the path) to the
vertex vt( the end of the path) in the graph G for a given path (vs,v1),
(v1,v2),(v2,v3)…..(vi,vt) is given by w(vs,v1) + w(v1,v2) +w(v2,v3)+
….+w(vi,vt)
• Dijkstra’s method is a very popular and efficient one to find every
path from starting to terminal vertices. If there is an edge between two
vertices, then the weight of this edge is its length. If several edges
exist, use the shortest length edge. If no edge actually exists, set the
length to infinity. Edge(vi,vj) does not necessarily have same length
as edge (vj,vi). This allows different routes between two vertices that
take different paths depending on the direction of travel
• Dijkstra’s technique is based on assigning labels to each vertex. The label is equal to the
distance (weight) from the starting vertex to that vertex. The starting vertex has the label 0 A
label can be in one of the two states-temporary or permanent. A permanent label that lies
along the shortest path while a temporary label is one that has uncertainty whether the label is
along the shortest path.
• Algorithm:
• Step 1: Assign a temporary label l(vi)= ∝ to all vertices except vs (the starting
vertex)
• Step 2: [Mark vs as permanent by assigning 0 label to it]
l(vs)=0
• Step 3: [Assign value of vs to vk where vk is the last vertex to be made permanent]
vk=vs
• Step 4: If l(vi) > l(vk) + w(vk,vi) [weight of the edge from vk to vi]
l(vi)= l(vk) +w(vk,vi)
• Step 5: vk=vi
• Step 6: If vt has temporary label, repeat step 4 to step 5 otherwise the value of vt is
permanent label and is equal to the shortest path vs to vt
• Step 7: Exit
Dijkstra’s Algorithm
An Example
∞ ∞
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 ∞
4 2
3 3 5
∞ ∞
Initialize
Select the node with
the minimum temporary
distance label.
Update Step
2
∞ ∞
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 ∞
4 2
3 3 5
∞ ∞
4
Choose Minimum Temporary Label
2 ∞
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 ∞
4 2
3 3 5
4 ∞
Update Step
6
2 ∞
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 ∞
4 2
3 3 5
4 ∞
3 4
The predecessor
of node 3 is now
node 2
2 6
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 ∞
4 2
3 3 5
3 4
Update
2 6
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 ∞
4 2
3 3 5
3 4
d(5) is not changed.

2 6
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 ∞
4 2
3 3 5
3 4
Update
2 6
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3 6
1 6 ∞
4 2
3 3 5
3 4
d(4) is not changed

2 6
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 6
4 2
3 3 5
3 4
Update
2 6
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 6
4 2
3 3 5
3 4
d(6) is not updated

2 6
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 6
4 2
3 3 5
3 4
There is nothing to update

End of Algorithm
2 6
2 4 4
2 2
0
1 2 3
1 6 6
4 2
3 3 5
3 4
All nodes are now permanent

The predecessors form a tree
The shortest path from node 1 to node 6 can
be found by tracing back predecessors
• Recursion- Recursion is a process by which a function calls
itself repeatedly, until some specified condition has been
satisfied. The process is used for repetitive computations in
which each action is stated in terms of the previous result.
Many iterative (or repetitive) problems can be written in this
form. In order to solve a problem recursively, two
conditions must be satisfied
• Problem must be written in a recursive form
• Problem statement must include a stopping condition.
• Program to calculate the factorial of a number using recursion
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int n,f;
printf("enter the number");
scanf("%d",&n);
f=fact(n);
printf("factorial of the number is %d",f);
getch();
}
fact(int n)
{
if(n==1)
return n;
return n* fact(n-1);
}
• When a recursive program is executed, the recursive
function calls are not executed immediately. Rather they are
placed on a stack until the condition that terminates the
recursion is encountered. The stack is a last-in first out data
structure in which the successive data items are pushed
down upon the preceding items. The data are later removed
from the stack in reverse order.
• The function calls are then executed in reverse order as they
are popped off the stack. Thus when evaluating the factorial
recursively, the function calls will proceed in the following
order
n!= n * (n-1)!
(n-1)!=n-1 * (n-2)!
(n-2)!=n-2 * (n-2)!
………………
………………………
2!=2 * 1!
The actual values returned will be in the reverse order
1!=1
2!= 2 * 1!= 2*1=2
3!= 3 * 2!= 3*2=6
4!= 4 * 3!=4*6=24
-----------------
n!=n* (n-1)!=………
This reversal in the order of execution is a characteristic of all functions
that are executed recursively.
• The use of recursion is not necessarily the best way to
approach a problem, even though the problem definition
may be recursive in nature. A non recursive implementation
may be more efficient in terms of memory utilization and
execution speed. Thus use of recursion may involve a
tradeoff between the simplicity and performance.
• Program to print fibonacci series using recursion
• #include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
void main()
{
int fibbo();
int i;
clrscr();
for(i=1;i<50;i++)
printf("%d",fibbo(i));
getch();
}
int fibbo(int i)
{
if(i==1)
{
return(0);
}
else if(i==2)
{
return(1);
}
else
{
return(fibbo(i-2)+fibbo(i-1));
}
}
}
• Program to find the x to the power of y using recursion
void main()
{
int i, j, res;
printf(“enter the two numbers as x to the power y”);
scanf(“%d%d”,&i,&j);
res=Power(i,j);
printf(“ x to the power of y is %d”,res);
getch();
}
int Power(int x, int y )
{
if(y == 0) return 1;
y--;
return x* Power(x,y);
}
• Towers of Hanoi- Towers of Hanoi is a practical application of
recursion. The problem is as follows:
• Suppose three pegs, labeled A, B and C are given and suppose on
peg A there are placed a finite number n of disks with decreasing
size. The object of the game is to move the disks from peg A to peg
C using peg B as an auxillary. The rules of the game are:
• Only one disk may be moved one at a time.
• At no time can a larger disc be placed on a smaller disk
A B C
• Solution for towers of hanoi problem for n=3 is done in seven moves
as:
• Move top disk from peg A to peg C
• Move top disk from peg A to peg B
• Move top disk from peg C to peg B
• Move top disk from peg B to peg A
• Move top disk from peg B to peg C
initial A->C A->B
A->C B -> A
C->B
B -> C A -> C
Rather than finding a separate solution for each n, we use the
technique of recursion to develop a general solution
• Move top n-1 disks from peg A to peg B
• Move top disk from peg A to peg C: A->C
• Move the top n-1 disks from peg B to peg C.
• Let us introduce a general notation
TOWER(N, BEG, AUX, END)
to denote a procedure which moves the top n disks from initial
peg BEG to final peg END using the peg AUX as a auxillary.
• For n=1,
• TOWER(1, BEG, AUX, END) consist of single instruction
BEG->END
For n>1, solution may be reduced to the solution of following three
subproblems:
• TOWER(N-1, BEG, END, AUX)
• TOWER(1,BEG, AUX, END) BEG->END
• TOWER(N-1, AUX, BEG, END)
• Each of the three sub problems can be solved directly or is essentially
the same as the original problem using fewer disks. Accordingly, this
reduction process does yield a recursive solution to the towers of
Hanoi problem.
• In general the recursive solution requires 2n – 1 moves for n disks.
• Algorithm: TOWER(N, BEG, AUX, END)
This procedure produces a recursive solution to the
Towers of Hanoi problem for N disks
Step 1: If N=1, then:
Write: BEG->END
Return
Step 2: [Move N -1 disks from peg BEG to peg AUX]
Call TOWER(N-1, BEG, END, AUX)
Write: BEG->END
Step 3: [Move N-1 disks from peg AUX to peg END]
Call TOWER(N-1, AUX, BEG, END)
Step 4: Return
• TOWER(1,A,C,B)—---A->B
• TOWER(2,A,B,C) -----A->C
TOWER(1,B,A,C) ----------B->C
• TOWER(3,A,C,B)--------------------------------------------------------------------A->B
• TOWER(1,C,B,A)---------------- C->A
• TOWER(2,C,A,B) --------------------------------C->B
• TOWER(1,A,C,B)----------------A->B
• TOWER(4,A,B,C)------------------------------------------------------------------A->C
• TOWER(1,B,A,C) -------------------B->C
• TOWER(2,B,C,A) ----------------------------------B->A
TOWER(1,C,B,A) --------------------C->A
TOWER(3,B,A,C)---------------------------------------------------------B->C
• TOWER(1,A,C,B) ------------------- A-> B
• TOWER(2,A,B,C) ------------------------------------A->C
• TOWER(1,B,A,C) --------------------B->C
Operations on Graph
• Suppose a graph G is maintained in memory by the linked list
representation
• GRAPH(NODE,NEXT,ADJ,START,AVAILN,DEST,LINK,AVAIL
E)
• The various operations possible on graph are insertion, deletion and
searching a node in a graph.
• Algorithm: INSNODE( NODE, NEXT, ADJ, START, AVAIL, N )
This algorithm inserts a node N in a graph G

Return
• Step 2: [Remove node from AVAIL List]
• Step 4: [Insert node in the NODE list]
Set NODE[NEW]:=N, ADJ[NEW]:=NULL,
NEXT[NEW]:=START and START:=NEW
• Step 5: Return
• Algorithm: INSEDGE(NODE, NEXT, ADJ, START, DEST, LINK,
AVAIL, A ,B)
This algorithm inserts an edge in a graph (A,B) where A
and B are the two nodes in the graph
• Step 1: CALL FIND(NODE,NEXT,START,A ,LOCA)
• Step 2: CALL FIND(NODE, NEXT, START, B, LOCB)
Return
• Step 4: [Remove node from AVAIL List]
• Step 5: [Insert LOCB in the list of successor of A]
Set DEST[NEW]:=LOCB, LINK[NEW]:=ADJ[LOCA] and
ADJ[LOCA]:=NEW
• Step 6: Return
• Algorithm: FIND (INFO,LINK,START,ITEM,LOC)
Find the first node containing the ITEM else sets the LOC
to NULL
• Step 2: Repeat while PTR NULL
If ITEM=INFO[PTR], then
Set LOC:=PTR
Return
Else
PTR=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: Set LOC:=NULL
• Step 4: Return
Algorithm: Algorithm to delete a node from a graph
• Step 1: Find the location LOC of the node N in G
• Step 2: Delete all edges ending at N; that is delete LOC from the list
of successors of each node M in G
• Step 3: Delete all edges beginning at N. This is accomplished by
finding the location BEG of the first successor and the location
END of the last successor of N and then adding the successor
list of N to the free AVAIL list
• Step 4: Delete N itself from the list NODE
Last year question paper
selected questions
• Program to implement Breadth First search in a graph
• We are using linked list implementation of the graph
struct node
{
int info;
struct node* next;
struct edge* adj;
};
struct edge struct queue
{ {
struct node* dest; struct node* n1;
struct node* link; struct queue* link;
}; };
This is assumed that we have a graph in which we want to apply
breadth first search to find the path from node1 to node2
void bfs ( struct node* node1, struct node* node2, struct node* start)
{
struct node* ptr,*item;
struct edge* edge1;
ptr=start;
while(ptr!=NULL)
{ ptr->status=1;
ptr=ptr->next;
}
ptr=start;
ptr->status=2;
insert(ptr);
while(front!=NULL)
{
item=del();
item->status=3;
printf(“%d”,item->info);
edge1=item->link;
while(edge1->link!=NULL)
{
if(edge1->status==1)
{
edge1->status=2;
insert(edge1->dest);
edge1=edge1->link;
}
}
}
void insert(struct node* ptr)
{ if(front==NULL)
{
front=rear=ptr;
return;
}
rear=rear->link;
rear->n1=ptr;
return;
}
struct node* del()
{
struct node* n2;
n2=front->n1;
if(front==NULL)
{
printf(“underflow”);
return;
}
else if(front==rear)
{
front=rear=NULL;
}
else
front=front->link;
return n2;
}
• Program to count leaf and nonleaf nodes in a binary search tree
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct tree
{
int num;
struct tree* left;
struct tree* right;
};
struct tree* root=NULL;
struct stack
{
struct tree* tr;
struct stack* link;
};
struct tree* pop();
struct stack* top=NULL;
void pre();
void create();
void push();
void main()
{
char ch='y';
int choice,choice1;
while(ch=='y')
{
printf("enter the type of operation 1. create 2. traversal");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice)
{
case 1: create();
break;
case 2: pre();
break;
}
printf("want another operation");

ch=getch();
}
getch();
}
• void create()
• {
• struct tree* new1,*ptr1,*save;
• if(root==NULL)
• {
• root=(struct tree*)malloc(sizeof(struct tree));
• printf("enter the data");
• scanf("%d",&root->num);
• root->left=NULL;
• root->right=NULL;
• return;
• }
• ptr1=root;
• new1=(struct tree*)malloc(sizeof(struct tree));
• printf("enter the number to be added");
• scanf("%d",&new1->num);
• new1->left=NULL;
• new1->right=NULL;
• while(ptr1!=NULL)
• {
• if(new1->num<ptr1->num)
• {save=ptr1;
• ptr1=ptr1->left;
• }
• else
• {
• save=ptr1;
• ptr1=ptr1->right;
• }
• }
• if(new1->num<save->num)
• {
• save->left=new1;
• }
• else
• {
• save->right=new1;
• }
• }
void pre()
{
int leafcount=0,nonleaf=0;
struct tree* ptr,*temp;
ptr=root;
while(ptr!=NULL)
{
printf("%d",ptr->num);
if(ptr->left==NULL&&ptr->right==NULL)
{
leafcount++;
}
else
{
nonleaf++;
}
if(ptr->right!=NULL)
{
push(ptr->right);
}
ptr=ptr->left;
}
while(top!=NULL)
{
temp=pop();
while(temp!=NULL)
{
printf("%d",temp->num);
if(temp->left==NULL&&temp->right==NULL)
{
leafcount++;
}
else
{
nonleaf++;
}
if(temp->right!=NULL)
push(temp->right);
temp=temp->left;
}
}
printf("leaf nodes are %d and nonleaf nodes are %d",leafcount,nonleaf);
}
void push(struct tree* p)
{
struct stack* new1;
new1=(struct stack*)malloc(sizeof(struct stack));
new1->tr=p;
new1->link=top;
top=new1;
}
struct tree* pop()
{
struct stack* s1;
s1=top;
top=top->link;
return s1->tr;
}
• Program to search for an item in a binary search tree
#include<stdio.h>
#include<conio.h>
struct tree
{
int num;
struct tree* left;
struct tree* right;
};
struct tree* root=NULL;
struct stack
{
struct tree* tr;
struct stack* link;
};
struct tree* pop();
struct stack* top=NULL;
void pre();
void search();
void create();
void push();
void main()
{
char ch='y';
int choice,choice1;
while(ch=='y')
{
printf("enter the type of operation 1. create 2. search");
scanf("%d",&choice);
switch(choice)
{
case 1: create();
break;
case 2: search();
break;
}
printf("want another operation");

ch=getch();
}
getch();
}
void search()
{
int item;
struct tree* ptr,*save;
printf("enter the item to be searched");
scanf("%d",&item);
ptr=root;
if(root==NULL)
{
printf("tree empty");
return;
}
if(ptr->num==item)
{
printf("item found");
return;
}
if(item<ptr->num)
{
save=ptr; ptr=ptr->left;
}
else
{ save=ptr; ptr=ptr->right;
}
while(ptr!=NULL)
{
if(item==ptr->num)
{
printf("element found");
return;
}
if(item<ptr->num)
{
ptr=ptr->left;
}
else{ptr=ptr->right;}} if(ptr==NULL)
{
printf("element not found");
return;
}
}
• void create()
• {
• struct tree* new1,*ptr1,*save;
• if(root==NULL)
• {
• root=(struct tree*)malloc(sizeof(struct tree));
• printf("enter the data");
• scanf("%d",&root->num);
• root->left=NULL;
• root->right=NULL;
• return;
• }
• ptr1=root;
• new1=(struct tree*)malloc(sizeof(struct tree));
• printf("enter the number to be added");
• scanf("%d",&new1->num);
• new1->left=NULL;
• new1->right=NULL;
• while(ptr1!=NULL)
• {
• if(new1->num<ptr1->num)
• {save=ptr1;
• ptr1=ptr1->left;
• }
• else
• {
• save=ptr1;
• ptr1=ptr1->right;
• }
• }
• if(new1->num<save->num)
• {
• save->left=new1;
• }
• else
• {
• save->right=new1;
• }
• }
• Write an algorithm to divide a linked list into three sublists based on a reminder
value of data.
• Algorithm: Sublist( INFO ,LINK, ITEM, START)
This algorithm divides the list into three sublists based on
some reminder values of data. PTR stores the address of
current node of base list. PTR1 stores the address of current
node of first new list created and PTR2 stores the address of
current node of second sublist created.START1 and
START2 and START3 stores the address of the starting address of the
three sublists
Step 1: START1:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
START2:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
START3:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
Step 2: Set PTR:=START, PTR1:=START1 and PTR2:=START2 and
PTR3:=START3
Step 3: Repeat while INFO[PTR]≠ITEM
INFO[PTR]:=INFO[PTR1]
PTR1:=LINK[PTR1]
PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
Step 4: Repeat while INFO[PTR]≠ITEM
LINK[ PTR2]:=AVAIL and AVAIL:=LINK[AVAIL]
PTR2:=LINK[PTR2]
PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
Step 5: Repeat while PTR ≠ NULL
PTR3:=LINK[PTR3]
PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
Step 6: Exit
Problem: Let there be a doubly linked list with three elements P , Q and R.
• Write an algorithm to insert S between P and Q
• Write an algorithm to delete the head element P from list
Sol:
(A)
Algorithm: INSERT(INFO,BACK,FORW)
This algorithm inserts an element S between elements P and
Q.
Step 1: IF AVAIL:=NULL, then:
Write:’OVERFLOW’
Step 3: Set INFO[NEW]:=S
Step 5: Repeat while INFO[PTR]≠P
PTR:=FORW[PTR]
[End of Loop]
Step 6: Set TEMP:=FORW[PTR]
Set FORW[PTR]:=NEW
Set BACK[NEW]:=PTR And FORW[NEW]:=TEMP
Set BACK[TEMP]:= NEW
Step 7: Exit
(b) Algorithm: Del (INFO, BACK,FORW,START)
This algorithm deletes the head node of a doubly linked
list
• Step 1:Set PTR:=START
• Step 2: Set START:= FORW[PTR]
• Step 3: Set BACK[FORW[PTR]]:=NULL
• Step 4: [Returning memory to avail list] Set FORW[PTR]:=AVAIL
and AVAIL:=PTR
• Step 5: Exit
• Problem: Suppose the names of few students of a class are as below:
Ram, Sham, Mohan, Sohan, Vimal, Komal
It is assumed that the names are represented as single linked list
(a) Write a program or algorithm to insert the name Raman between sham and mohan
(b) Write a routine to replace the name vimal with guman
Sol:
(a) Algorithm: INSRT(INFO,LINK,START)
This algorithm inserts an item Raman between Sham and Mohan
Step 2: If AVAIL=NULL
Exit
Step 4: Set INFO[NEW]:=Raman
Step 5: Repeat while INFO[PTR]≠Sham
PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
Step 6: Set LINK[NEW]:=LINK[PTR]
Set LINK[PTR]:=NEW
Step 7:Exit
(b) Algorithm:Replace(INFO,LINK,START)
This algorithm replaces the name vimal in the linked
list with name Guman. START pointer stores the
address of starting address of the linked list
• Step 2: Repeat while INFO[PTR]≠Vimal
PTR:=LINK[PTR]
[End of Loop]
• Step 3: Set INFO[PTR]:=Guman
• Step 4: Exit
• Problem: Calculate the depth of a tree with 2000 nodes
• Solution: The formulae for calculating the depth of a tree with n number
of nodes is
Depth= Log2N + 1
Here N is 2000
Find out the 2’s power between which the value 2000 lies
210 =1024 and 211 =2048
Thus 2000 lies between 210 and 211
Putting in formulae
Depth= Log2 (210 to 211 ) + 1
Selecting the lower limit
= Log2 (210 ) + 1
=10Log22 +1
=10+1=11
• Static and dynamic data structures-A static data structure in
computational complexity theory is a data structure created for an
input data set which is not supposed to change within the scope of the
problem. When a single element is to be added or deleted, the update
of a static data structure incurs significant costs, often comparable
with the construction of the data structure from scratch. In real
applications, dynamic data structures are used, which allow for
efficient updates when data elements are inserted or deleted.
• Static data structures such as arrays allow
- fast access to elements
- expensive to insert/remove elements
- have fixed, maximum size
• Dynamic data structures such as linked lists allow
- fast insertion/deletion of element
- but slower access to elements
- have flexible size
• Applications of Binary Tree/Binary Search Tree
• For making decision trees
• For expressing mathematical expressions
• Faster searching as search is reduced to half at every step.
• For sorting of an array using heap sort method
• For representation of Organization charts
• For representation of File systems
• For representation of Programming environments
• Arithmetic Expression Tree
• � Binary tree associated with an arithmetic expression
• � internal nodes: operators
• � external nodes: operands
• � Example: arithmetic expression tree for the
• expression (2 × (a − 1) + (3 × b))
• Trailer node- A trailer node is like a header node in a linked list
except that it stores the address of the last node in a linked list. The
significance of this node is in a doubly linked list that can be traversed
in both the direction. In doubly linked list, we can take the advantage
of trailer node in searching a node in a sorted doubly linked list. The
search will be more efficient.
For convenience, a doubly linked list has a header node and a
trailer node. They are also called sentinel nodes, indicating
both the ends of a list.
header trailer
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Difference from singly linked lists:

- each node contains two links.
- two extra nodes: header and trailer, which contain no
elements.

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Data structure

The logical and mathematical model of a particular organization of

• Arrays- An array is a list of finite number of elements of same data

• Two dimensional array that requires two indices to access an

• Linear collection of data elements called nodes

• Repeat- for loop

• Loop execution time is the number of times the loop body is

• It is very difficult to practically analyze the variation of time

1 10 100 1000 10,000

Rate of Growth of f(n) with n

• Searching- Finding location of an element

• Insertion- Adding a new element

• Deletion- Removing an element

• Sorting-Arranging elements in some type of order

• Merging- Combining two lists into a single list

• Complexity of Selection sort method: The number f (n) of

Step 3: [Scan from left to right]

f(n)= nlog2n= O(nlog2n)

• The only disadvantage of merge sort is that it uses an extra temporary

Let’s look at an example. We have a list of employees of a fairly small

• Hash Function is a function which, when applied to the key,

• Perfect Hash Function is a function which, when applied to all the

• Good Hash Function minimizes collisions by spreading the elements

• Rehashing - Resolving a collision by computing a new hash location (index) in the

An alternative to linear probing is quadratic probing.

Advantages to this approach

Disadvantages to this approach

Binary search cannot be applied to linked list as there is no

INSERTION AT THE BEGINNING OF THE LINKED LIST

HEADER NODE WITH EXP -1 AND COEFF 0

CIRCULAR HEADER LINEKD LIST REPRESENTATION OF 2x8-5x7-3x2+4

• Pop- Term used to describe deletion of an element from a stack.

order in which elements are popped from a stack

• Convert the following infix expressions to prefix and postfix forms

• Evaluation of postfix expression

• Stacks are used for implementing function calls in a program

• One way to maintain a priority queue in memory is by means of a

• Each node in list will contain three items of information: an

• A node X precedes a node Y in list

– If X has higher priority than Y

• A binary tree can be empty whereas a tree cannot be empty

• Preorder Traversal: ABDECF

One-way inorder Threading

Two-way inorder Threading

• Phase A: Build a heap H out of the elements of A

• Phase B: Repeatedly delete the root element of H

mar nov jan jul

apr aug feb may dec

Ans No as node B is not balanced as difference of heights of left and

0 if there is no edge between vi and vj

Such a matrix that contains entries of only 0 or 1 is called a bit matrix

Suppose there is a path from vi to vj. Then there must be a simple

d(5) is not changed.

d(4) is not changed

d(6) is not updated

There is nothing to update

All nodes are now permanent

This algorithm inserts a node N in a graph G

printf("want another operation");

printf("want another operation");

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Difference from singly linked lists: