RESERVOIR

2018
BATUAN
Batuan Sedimen

Sedimentary rocks are

classified into three
groups. These groups
are clastic, chemical
precipitate and
biochemical (or
biogenic).
Batuan Sedimen
Siliciclastic rocks are clastic
noncarbonate sedimentary rocks
that are almost exclusively silica-
bearing, either as forms of quartz
or other silicate minerals. All
siliciclastic rocks are formed by
inorganic processes, or deposited
through some mechanical process,
such as stream deposits that are
subsequently lithified. They are
sandstone based rocks accounting
for about 50 - 60% of the world oil
and gas exploration.
SANDSTONE
SIZE Clastic sedimentary rocks may be regarded
as falling along a scale of grain size, with
shale being the finest with particles less
than 0.002 mm, siltstone being a little
bigger with particles between 0.002 to
0.063 mm, and sandstone being coarser
still with grains 0.063 to 2 mm, and
conglomerates and breccias being more
coarse with grains 2 to 263 mm. Breccia
has sharper particles, while conglomerate
is categorized by its rounded particles.
Particles bigger than 263 mm are termed
blocks (angular) or boulders (rounded).
Lutite, Arenite and Rudite are general
terms for sedimentary rock with clay/silt-,
sand- or conglomerate/breccia-sized
particles.
Colour The colour of a sedimentary rock is
often mostly determined by iron, an
element which has two major oxides:
iron(II) oxide and iron(III) oxide.
Iron(II) oxide only forms under
anoxic circumstances and gives the
rock a grey or greenish colour.
Iron(III) oxide is often in the form of
the mineral hematite and gives the
rock a reddish to brownish colour. In
arid continental climates rocks are in
direct contact with the atmosphere,
and oxidation is an important
process, giving the rock a red or
orange colour
Fabric The size, form and orientation
of clasts or minerals in a rock
is called its texture. The
texture is a small-scale
property of a rock, but
determined many of its large-
scale properties, such as the
density, porosity or
permeabililty.
Clastic rocks have a 'clastic
texture', which means they
consist of clasts. The 3D
orientation of these clasts is
called the fabric of the rock.
Between the clasts the rock
can be composed of a matrix
or a cement
Shape The form of a clast can be
described by using four
parameters:
'surface texture' describes the
amount of small-scale relief of
the surface of a grain which is
too small to have influence on
the general shape;
'rounding' describes the general
smoothness of the shape of a
grain;
'sphericity' describes the degree
in with the grain approaches a
sphere; and
'grain form' is used to describe
the 3D shape of the grain.
Source
The mineralogy of a clastic rock
is determined by the supplied
material from the source area, the
manner of transport to the place
of deposition and the stability of
a particular mineral. The stability
of the major rock forming
minerals (their resistance to
weathering) is expressed by
Bowen's reaction series. In this
series, quartz is most stable,
followed by feldspar, micas and
other less stable minerals that will
only be present when little
weathering occurred.
Source
The amount of weathering
depends mainly on the
distance to the source area,
the local climate and the
time it took for the
sediment to be transported
there. In most sedimentary
rocks, mica, feldspar and
less stable minerals will
have reacted to clay
minerals like kaolinite,
illite or smectite.
Diagenesis

The term diagenesis is

used to describe all the
chemical, physical, and
biological changes,
including cementation,
undergone by a sediment
after its initial deposition,
exclusive of surface
weathering. Some of these
processes cause the
sediment to consolidate: a
compact, solid substance
forms out of loose
material.
Carbonates
Carbonates form a large
proportion of all sedimentary
rocks.
Carbonate rocks dominantly
consist of carbonate minerals
like calcite, aragonite or
dolomite. Both cement and
clasts (including fossils and
ooids) of a carbonate rock
can consist of carbonate
minerals. Carbonates usually
have an irregular structure.
Carbonates
The most common are
calcite or calcium
carbonate, CaCO3, the
chief constituent of
limestone (as well as the
main component of
mollusc shells and coral
skeletons); dolomite, a
calcium-magnesium
carbonate CaMg(CO3)2;
and siderite, or iron (II)
carbonate, FeCO3, an
important iron ore.
Carbonates
Limestone is partially soluble,
especially in acid, and therefore
forms many erosional
landforms. These include
limestone pavements, pot holes,
cenotes, caves and gorges. Such
erosion landscapes are known as
karsts. Limestone is less
resistant than most igneous
rocks, but more resistant than
most other sedimentary rocks.
Limestone is therefore usually
associated with hills and
downland and occurs in regions
with other sedimentary rocks,
Special Carbonate Types

Chalk is a special form

of limestone and is
formed from the
skeletons of small
creatures (cocoliths).
Evaporites such as Salt
(NaCl) and Anhydrite
.
(CaSO4) can also form
in these environments
Carbonates Components deposited as discrete
grains or crystals
Contain lime mud, < 10%
grains: (Lime) Mudstone
Contain lime mud, (matrix
supported) >10% grains:
Wackestone
Contains lime mud, grain
supported: Packstone
No lime mud, grain
supported: Grainstone
original components bound
together during deposition by
framework building
organisms, encrustation or
sediment trapping
mechanisms : Boundstone
Depositional texture not
recognizable. Crystalline
Carbonates
Vuggy porosity is pore space that is
within grains or crystals or that is
significantly larger than grains or
crystals; that is, pore space that is
not interparticle. This definition
deviates from the restrictive
definition of vugs used by Choquette
and Pray (1970) as nondescript,
nonfabric-selective pores, but it is
consistent with the Archie
terminology and with the
widespread and less restrictive use in
the oil industry of the term "vuggy
porosity" in referring to visible pore
space in carbonate rocks
Rock Properties

Rocks are described

by three properties:

Porosity - quantity of
pore space

Permeability- ability
of a formation to flow

Matrix -major
constituent of the rock
Definition of Porosity

Porosity is a measure of the

void spaces in a material,
and is a fraction of the
volume of voids over the
total volume, between 0–1,
or as a percentage between
0–100%
It is defined by the ratio:
where VV is the v of void-
space (such as fluids) and VT
is the total or bulk volume of
material, including the solid
and void components
Porosity Sandstones
The porosity of a sandstone depends on the packing
arrangement of its grains.The system can be examined
using spheres

In a Rhombohedral packing, the pore space accounts

for 26% of the total volume.

With a Cubic packing arrangement, the pore space

fills 47% of the total volume.

In practice, the theoretical value is rarely reached

because:
a) the grains are not perfectly round, and
b) the grains are not of uniform size.
Sorted
Well sorted (grains of
approximately all one size)
materials have higher porosity
than similarly sized poorly
sorted materials (where smaller
particles fill the gaps between
larger particles). The graphic
illustrates how some smaller
grains can effectively fill the
pores (where all water flow takes
place), drastically reducing
porosity and hydraulic
conductivity, while only being a
small fraction of the total volume
of the material.
Porosity and Grain Size

• A rock can be made

up of small grains or
large grains but have
the same porosity

• Porosity depends on
grain packing, not the
grain size.
Porosity
Primary porosity
The main or original porosity
system in a rock or unconfined
alluvial deposit.

Secondary porosity
A subsequent or separate porosity
system in a rock, often enhancing
overall porosity of a rock. This can
be a result of chemical leeching of
minerals or the generation of a
fracture system. This can replace
the primary porosity or coexist
with it (see dual porosity below).
Porosity
Macro porosity :Refers to pores
greater than 50 nm in diameter. Flow
through macropores is described by
bulk diffusion.

Meso porosity :Refers to pores greater

than 2 nm and less than 50 nm in
diameter. Flow through mesopores is
described by Knudsen diffusion.

Micro porosity :Refers to pores smaller

than 2 nm in diameter. Movement in
micropores is by activated diffusion.
 Diagenesis

The environment can also involve

subsequent alterations of the rock
such as:
Chemical changes,Diagenesis is
the chemical alteration of a rock
after burial. An example is the
replacement of some of the
calcium atoms in limestone by
magnesium to form dolomite
Mechanical changes - fracturing
in a tectonically-active region.
Porosity
Carbonate porosity is very heterogeneous. It is classified into a number of
types: Intergranular porosity is called "primary porosity".

Interparticle porosity: Each grain is

separated, giving a similar pore
space arrangement as sandstone.
Intergranular porosity: Pore space is
created inside the individual grains
which are interconnected.
Intercrystalline porosity: Produced
by spaces between carbonate
crystals.
Mouldic porosity: Pores created by
the dissolution of shells, etc.
Porosity
Porosity created after deposition is called
"secondary porosity".
Fracture porosity:
Pore spacing created by the
cracking of the rock fabric.

Channel porosity:
Similar to fracture porosity but larger.

Vuggy porosity:
Created by the dissolution of
fragments, but unconnected.
Permeability Definition

The rate of flow of a liquid

through a formation depends
on:
The pressure drop,the viscosity
of the fluid and The
permeability.

The pressure drop is a reservoir

property.
The viscosity is a fluid property.
The permeability is a measure
of the ease at which a fluid can
flow through a formation
Permeability and Rocks
Relationships exist between permeability and
porosity for given formations, although they
are not universal.
A rock must have porosity to have any
permeability.
The unit of measurement is the Darcy.
Reservoir permeability is usually quoted in
millidarcies (md).

In formations with large grains, the

permeability is high and the flow rate
larger.
In a rock with small grains the
permeability is less and the flow
lower.
Porosity & Permeability

Reservoir rocks need

two properties to be
successful:
Pore spaces able to
retain hydrocarbon.
Permeability which
allows the fluid to
move.
 Porosity & Permeability
Processes that reduce porosity
and permeability:
Compaction
Cementation
Heavy hydrocarbon residue

Processes that enhance porosity and

permeability:
Dissolution
Fracturing
Dolomitization

Carbonate rocks are often subjected to early

cementation, so reservoir quality depends
very strongly on dissolution, fracturing and
dolomitization.

Most carbonate reservoirs are due to

secondary porosity.
Reefs sometimes preserve primary porosity.
 FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI
PROPERTI RESERVOIR-1

Porosity Depositional aspects:

Effective porosity vs. total • Composition
porosity • Sorting
• Rounding
Types: • Grain size
• Primary porosity • Rounding
• Secondary porosity • Packing

Porosity in Clastic rocks Diagenesis:

vs Carbonate rocks • Dewatering
• Compaction
Relationship between • Cementation
porosity and permeability
FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI
PROPERTI RESERVOIR-2
FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI
PROPERTI RESERVOIR-3

Porosity-depth plot for sandstones from two wells with different geothermal gradients (A) &
Cement (B) From Wilson, 1994a; courtesy SEPM
 FAKTOR YANG MEMPENGARUHI
PROPERTI RESERVOIR-4

Eh-pH diagram, showing the approximate distribution of various types of

subsurface fluids. From Shelley; courtesy W.H. Freeman and Co.
Pore Network
Pore Network
CROSS BEDDED QUARZT RICH ARGILACEOUS GRAIN STONE
CARBONATE GRAIN STONE
SKELETAL WACKESTONE PELOIDAL GRAINSTONE
 CEMENTED OOID
OOID SKELETAL GRAINSTONE
SKELETAL GRAINSTONE
Porosity VS Permeability
Porosity VS Permeability
LITOFACIES PETROPHYSICS
LITOFACIES PETROPHYSICS
LITOFACIES PETROPHYSICS
LITOFACIES PETROPHYSICS
ISOPOROSITY MAP
ISOPOROSITY MAP