Module 3

Passive Solar
Heating
Passive Solar Heating
Passive solar heating is the least expensive way to heat your
building. Put simply, design for passive solar heating aims to
keep out summer sun and let in winter sun while ensuring the
building’s overall thermal performance retains that heat in
winter but excludes it and allows it to escape in summer.
Passive solar design also depends on informed, active
occupants who remember to open and close windows and
isolate zone spaces, for example, each day. It is also:
1) low cost when designed into a new building or addition
2) achievable using all types of construction systems
3) appropriate for all climates for winter heating is required
4) achievable when buying a project building for renovation
by correct orientation, slight floor plan changes and
appropriate glazing and shading.
The following rules apply to all passive solar heating
systems.

Six Rules for Low Cost Passive Heating ™

1. Make sure the house is weather tight and well insulated. ™
2. Orient house properly, with a number of windows on the
south. ™
3. Use the minimum amount of glazing necessary for
heating. ™
4. Make glazing control simple, reliable, effective, and
convenient to use. ™
5. Use the simplest, smallest, and most economical method
of providing needed thermal mass. ™
6. Consider cooling demand, integrate design to achieve
lowest-cost heating and cooling.
Advantages of Passive solar systems
Passive solar systems are distinguished from the more widely recognized
active solar systems by the following characteristics. ™
1) They use energy from the sun and climate resources to provide both
heating, cooling, and ventilation. ™
2) They do not rely on auxiliary energy sources to function. Because
there are no pumps or controls, they will work even if the power is
off. ™
3) They are simple and relatively low in cost. ™
4) They combine collection and storage. ™
5) They have a long life and need little maintenance. ™
6) They use energy-inexpensive materials. ™
7) They can be built and installed by the regular construction trades
without special equipment.
Key Components of a Passive Solar Heating System
A passive solar heating system is made up of the following
key components, all of which must work together for the
design to be successful:
1) Aperture (Collector)
2) Absorber
3) Thermal mass
4) Distribution
5) Control.
How passive solar heating works
Solar radiation is trapped by action of correctly oriented (north-facing) glass areas
exposed to full sun. Trapped heat is absorbed and stored by materials with high
thermal mass (usually masonry) inside the house. It is re-released at night when it is
needed to offset heat losses to lower outdoor temperatures.
Passive solar heating is used in conjunction with passive shading, which allows
maximum winter solar gain and prevents summer overheating. This is most simply
achieved with northerly orientation of appropriate areas of glass and well-designed
eaves overhangs
In a passive solar heating system, the aperture (collector) is a
large glass (window) area through which sunlight enters the
building. Typically, the aperture(s) should face within 30° of
true south and should not be shaded by other buildings or
trees from 9 a.m. to 3 p.m. each day during the heating
season.
The hard, darkened surface of the storage element is known
as the absorber. This surface—which could consist of a
masonry wall, floor, or partition (phase change material), or a
water container—sits in the direct path of sunlight. Sunlight
then hits the surface and is absorbed as heat.
The thermal mass is made up of materials that retain or store
the heat produced by sunlight.Difference between absorber
and thermal mass, although they often form the same wall or
floor, is that the absorber is an exposed surface, whereas
thermal mass is the material below or behind that surface.
Distribution is the method by which solar heat circulates
from the collection and storage points to different areas of
the building. A strictly passive design will use the three
natural heat transfer modes exclusively—conduction,
convection, and radiation. In some applications, however,
fans, ducts, and blowers may help with the distribution of
heat through the building.

Elements to help control under- and overheating of a passive

solar heating system include roof overhangs, which can be
used to shade the aperture area during summer months,
electronic sensing devices, such as a differential thermostat
that signals a fan to turn on, operable vents and dampers
that allow or restrict heat flow, low-emissivity blinds,
and awnings.
Re-radiated heat is distributed to where it is needed through
good design of air flow and convection. Direct re-radiation is
most effective but heat is also conducted through building
materials and distributed by air movement. Floor plans
should be designed to ensure that the most important rooms
(usually day-use living areas) face north and receive the best
winter solar access.
Heat loss is minimised with appropriate window treatments
and well-insulated walls, ceilings and raised floors. Thermal
mass (the storage system) must be insulated to be effective.
Slab-on-ground edges should be insulated in colder climates,
or when in-slab heating or cooling is installed within the slab
(see Insulation; Thermal mass).
Air infiltration is minimised with airlocks, draught sealing,
airtight construction detailing and quality windows and doors.
Where to locate thermal mass
To determine the best location for thermal mass you need to know if
your greatest energy consumption is the result of summer cooling or
winter heating.
Heating: Locate thermal mass in areas that receive direct sunlight or
radiant heat from heaters.
Heating and cooling: Locate thermal mass inside the building on the
ground floor for ideal summer and winter efficiency. The floor is usually
the most economical place to locate heavy materials, and earth
coupling gives additional thermal stabilisation in both summer and
winter in these climates.
Locate thermal mass in north-facing rooms with good solar access,
exposure to cooling night breezes in summer, and additional sources of
heating or cooling (heaters or evaporative coolers).
Locate additional thermal mass near the centre of the building,
particularly if a heater or cooler is positioned there. Feature brick walls,
slabs, water features and large earth or water-filled pots can be used.
Passive solar heating requires careful application of the
following passive design principles:

1) northerly orientation of daytime living areas

2) passive shading of glass and selection of appropriate
glazing
3) appropriate areas of glass on northern façades
4) thermal mass for storing heat
5) insulation and draught sealing
6) floor plan design to address heating needs including
zoning
7) climate appropriate glazing solutions
Types of Passive Solar Heating Systems
The Passive solar heating systems can be of many types:
1) Direct Solar Gain
(a) Single Glazed
(b) Double Glazed
2) Indirect Solar Gains (Thermal Walls)
(i) Trombe Wall
(ii) Water wall
(iii) Trans wall
3) Isolated Solar Gains

4) Other Hybrid Heating/Cooling Systems

(1) Direct Gain Solar Heating Systems
In this case, solar radiation is directly transmitted through
glazed window into the living room for thermal heating.
During the day, the whole building structure collects, absorbs,
and stores the heat and releases the heat at night for thermal
heating
In a direct gain system, the thermal mass floors and walls are
functional parts of the house. It is also possible to use water containers
inside the house to store heat. However, it is more difficult to integrate
water storage containers in the design of the house.
The thermal mass will temper the intensity of the heat during the day
by absorbing the heat. At night, the thermal mass radiates heat into
the living space.
The amount of sunlight absorbed by a material (and thus converted to
heat) depends on its color. Light colored surfaces will bounce light
around within the space, distributing it over a greater number of
surfaces. Dark colored materials will absorb most of the incident
energy as soon as it strikes. Both of these can be useful, depending on
the situation.
Roofs often need to avoid direct solar gain in hot climates. "Cool roofs"
use light colors to reflect most of the sun's heat. Cool roof surfaces are
often far more effective than simply adding roof insulation. For
example, the surface of a black roof can easily get 40°C (75°F) hotter
than the surface of a white roof on a sunny day.
Direct-gain passive solar systems rely on south-facing windows to bring
solar energy directly into a house. That sunlight is absorbed by materials
in the house (the floor, walls, furniture, etc.), which warm up, store
some of that heat, and re-radiate it back into the room, warming the
space.
One way of looking at this is that the house itself serves as the solar
collector and heat-storage system. There are no fans or pumps to move
heated air or water around. The systems are silent, trouble-free, and
easy to maintain--by washing windows and, in some cases, opening and
closing window blinds to adjust incoming solar gain. The thermal
storagefunction is most effective with high-mass materials, such as tile
or concrete floors, fireplaces with brick or stone facings, and tinted
plaster walls. These materials keep the space from getting too hot
during the day, and they continue radiating warmth into the living space
in the evening.
Direct gain system rules of thumb
1) A heat load analysis of the house should be conducted.
2) Do not exceed 6 inches of thickness in thermal mass materials.
3) Do not cover thermal mass floors with wall to wall carpeting; keep as
bare as functionally and aesthetically possible.
4) Use a medium dark color for masonry floors; use light colors for
other lightweight walls; thermal mass walls can be any color.
5) For every square foot of south glass, use 150 pounds of masonry or
4 gallons of water for thermal mass.
6) Fill the cavities of any concrete block used as thermal storage with
concrete or other high mass substance.
7) Use thermal mass at less thickness throughout the living space
rather than a concentrated area of thicker mass.
8) The surface area of mass exposed to direct sunlight should be 9
times the area of the glazing.
9) Sun tempering is the use of direct gain without added thermal mass.
For most homes, multiply the house square footage by 0.08 to
determine the amount of south facing glass for sun tempering.
(2) Indirect Gain
In an indirect gain system, thermal mass is located between
the sun and the living space. The thermal mass absorbs the
sunlight that strikes it and transfers it to the living space by
conduction. The indirect gain system will utilize 30 – 45% of
the sun’s energy striking the glass adjoining the thermal
mass.The heat is allowed to enter through glazing and is
stored in the thermal mass. The heat is then transferred to
the room via conduction and convection
•Indirect gain
concepts include
1)Trombe wall,
2) water wall and
3) Trans wall.
Isolated Gain (Attached sun spaces or Green House)
An isolated gain system has its integral parts separate from the main living area of a
house. Examples are a sunroom and a convective loop through an air collector to a
storage system in the house. The ability to isolate the system from the primary living
areas is the point of distinction for this type of system.

The isolated gain system will utilize 15 – 30% of the sunlight striking the glazing toward
heating the adjoining living areas. Solar energy is also retained in the sunroom itself.
Sunrooms (or solar greenhouses) employ a combination of direct gain and indirect
gain system features. Sunlight entering the sunroom is retained in the thermal mass
and air of the room. Sunlight is brought into the house by means of conduction
through a shared mass wall in the rear of the sunroom, or by vents that permit the air
between the sunroom and living space to be exchanged by convection.
Thermal walls
Thermal walls can be categorized into three types:
1) Trombe wall: Those utilizing a massive wall to store heat
2) Water wall: Those utilizing a water to store heat
3) Trans wall: Those utilizing water for storage along with
transparent absorber to facilitate visual comfort .
Of the three structures Trombe walls are most used.
(1) Trombe Wall
Trombe walls use a combination of thermal mass and glazing
to collect and store solar radiation so that it can be used to
heat buildings. The broad idea was patented by Edward
Morse in 1881, but it was named after French engineer Felix
Trombe, who along with architect Jacques Michel used
trombe walls as an architectural component in the 1960’s.
A thermally massive wall with good solar absorption
characteristics (perhaps with a matt, dark-coloured surface) is
orientated facing towards the direction of the sun. The wall is
constructed behind a glazed façade that protects it from
external conditions. There is generally a space between the
glazing and the wall. This space can be very narrow, just
sufficient to allow air movement between the glazing and the
wall and to provide access for cleaning, or it can be large
enough to be habitable.
Solar radiation that penetrates through the glazing will heat
up the wall, but the resulting emission of long-wave infrared
radiation from the wall will not re-transmit back through the
glazing which is opaque to long-wave infrared radiation. This
creates an effect similar to that which allows greenhouses to
trap solar radiation.
Heat built up in the wall is slowly
released into adjacent spaces by
radiation and convection. Depending
on the thermal mass of the wall, this
heat can be released over long periods
of time, moderating fluctuations in
conditions. This is a form of ‘passive’
solar heating, as opposed to an ‘active’
building services heating system.
The design of trombe walls needs to enable them to provide solar
heating during colder periods, but not to generate overheating during
warmer periods. This might require the use of external vents, shading or
overhanging eaves to limit peak gains and to enable night time cooling.

Thus design may also include vents at the top and bottom of the wall
(which may be controllable or even include mechanical assistance) to
allow more rapid heat transfer between the wall and the adjacent
space, or it may rely entirely on conduction through the wall. Where
vents are included, cooler air from the adjacent space will enter through
the lower vent, will be heated by the wall and so will rise, and will then
return to the adjacent space through the upper vent. Closing the vents
at night will prevent reverse flows occurring and removing heat from the
space.
Typically the wall will be 20-40cm thick, made out of high heat capacity
materials such as masonry or concrete (or even containers filled with
water), with the absorbed heat taking up to 10 hours to conduct to the
interior.

The efficiency of trombe walls can be improved by the use of double

glazing with a low-e coating to reduce heat losses to the outside. Low-e
coatings reduce the effective emissivity of the surface of glass so that it
reflects, rather than absorbs, a higher proportion of long-wave infra-red
radiation. Ideally, the glazing should have exterior insulation, shutters or
blinds to prevent heat loss during the night
A Northern hemisphere Trombe wall
Common modifications to the Trombe wall include:
1) Exhaust vent near the top that is opened to vent to the outside
during the summer. Such venting makes the Trombe wall act as
a solar chimneypumping fresh air through the house during the
day, even if there is no breeze.
2) Windows in the Trombe wall. This lowers the efficiency but may be
done for natural lighting or aesthetic reasons. If the outer glazing
has high ultraviolet transmittance, and the window in the Trombe
wall is normal glass, this allows efficient use of the ultraviolet
light for heating. At the same time, it protects people and
furnishings from ultraviolet radiation more than do windows with
high ultraviolet transmittance.
3) Electric blowers controlled by thermostats, to improve air and heat
flow.
4) Fixed or movable shades, which can reduce night-time heat losses.
Trombay Wall in
plan and elevation
Three different Constructions with different Materials
AAC = Autoclaved Areated Concrete Block
Water Wall
The use of the term "water wall" includes not only actual water walls,
the most common use, but also the use of water containers in other
configurations. "Water walls" is, in effect, a short-hand way of saying,
"the use of water as thermal mass in passive solar homes for heating
and cooling." Their performance is often very good indeed, both for
heating and cooling. They are particularly well suited for climates like
Davis with a high diurnal swing between very hot days and cool nights in
the summer, and mild winters with sunny days common during the
coldest periods.
Passive Solar Heating Systems Using Water Walls
Passive solar systems using water walls are very effective for heating.
They differ widely in configuration, performance, and cost, but do have
several features in common. These include: glazing to admit the sun's
energy; glazing control (insulated drapes or shutters) to reduce
unwanted heat loss or heat gain through glazing; and thermal mass,
including water but also sheet rock, concrete, tile and other high mass
materials, to store the sun's energy.
Water Wall Passive Solar
Water wall passive solar buildings are usually the most
attractive type of passive solar home. The key element for a
passive solar home is thermal mass — and water provides this
mass at a lower cost than either concrete or phase change
salts, as Table 1 indicates.

Table 1. Thermal Mass Comparison

-----------------------------------------------------
Material Cost per 100,000 BTU Storage
------------------------------------------------------
Water 10o000/-
Phase Change 120000/-
Concrete 140000/-
-----------------------------------------------------
Water walls are attractive for a number of other reasons: ™
1) they can be installed in new construction easily and economically ™
2) they are more effective than masonry for heating and cooling,
particularly in areas with cool night temperatures ™
3) they are more flexible than phase change storage because they work
for cooling as well as heating, and don't have a critical working
temperature ™
4) they can be easily disguised to become practically invisible ™
5) they can be smaller than an equivalent masonry wall, avoiding the
claustrophobic sensation of full masonry walls ™
6) they are extremely comfortable because of the large radiant surface
exposed to the inside ™in many cases
7) they can be retrofitted economically and easily.
In a new building, where super-insulation and super-tight design can be
incorporated, sufficient collection area can be realized by putting
windows equal to five to ten percent of the floor area, on the south
side. The appropriate amount of water for each square meter of glass
will vary depending on the climate, other mass in the building, and the
primary goals – winter heating or summer cooling? Or both. A good rule
of thumb is to add 100 to 300 liters per square meter of south facing
glass for heating. For night ventilation cooling even more mass can be
helpful if it is well exposed to cooling breezes from windows or fans.
To store the sun's energy for heating, or to store coolness from
nighttime air you need to add appropriate "thermal mass" in your
retrofit. Water containers are the easiest way to incorporate this needed
thermal mass. As much of this mass as possible should be directly in the
sun for heating, but it can be distributed more for cooling. Water is
better than concrete or stone because it is more dynamic and can gain
heat in winter or shed heat in summer faster thanks to internal
circulation.
A Drum water wall system (water with a thin concrete layer
behind it) ensures a good load levelling and significant phase
shift. So this system is attractive when both day and night
performance as well as load levelling are the prime concern.
Transwall
Transwall glass wall systems give you the power to harness the power of
natural sunlight to reduce energy costs. Create beautiful
environmentally-friendly work spaces that inspire efficiency and
productivity
Properties of absorber:
1) The semi transparent absorber will have Transmissivity in the
range of 0.8-0.9
2) Absorptivity in the range of 0.1-0.2 Advantages:
3) Rapid heat transfer due to convective heat transfer through water
and direct heat gain.
4) Reduced heat loss: As most of the solar radiation is absorbed in
centre(through absorber) and close to/at the living space(by direct
gain) heat loss to ambient air is less.

Disadvantages:
1) The transmission of light through water may cause glare.
2) There may be a problem of over heating due to direct gain in day
times.
3) Inefficient for night heating since time/phase shift between heat
flux and solar flux.
.
Its been a strong intuition that trans wall will produce glare and visual
discomfort to the occupants, the following may help in fading that
misconception and improve the acceptability of trans wall
deployment
Effect of width of inner and outer water columns:
1) As the width of outer water column increases (keeping inner column and
absorber width constant) the loss to ambient increases thus reducing the
average heat flux.
2) This is because as outer column width increases, the quantity of heat stored
towards the glazing(outer glass) part of the Trans wall increases.
3) As the width of inner water column increases better load levelling can be
achieved i.e flux fluctuation will reduce. Effect of absorber width:
4) As the thickness of it increases, the heat loss to the ambient decreases since
the resistance to conduction of heat from the water column increases, But at
the same time, it also reduces the transmission of solar flux. Beyond that if
the thickness is even increased the reduction in transmission will be much
more than reduction in heat loss thus reducing overall heat flux
Solarium
Solarium is a unification of direct gain and thermal storage concepts.
Solarium consists of three sections namely sunspace with thick mass
wall on the south side (for Northern hemisphere), linking space, and
living space as shown in Figure. The thermal wall between the living
space and sunspace helps in heat retention and distribution, thus
improving the efficiency. The sunspace collects the energy through the
glazing, absorbs it, and prewarm air for the living space. The sunspace
works on the direct gain principle, in which the heat is used to maintain
the temperature suitable for its transfer to the living space.
Cross section of Solarium cum passive
solar House
Roof Pond Systems
Six to twelve inches of water are contained on a flat roof.
This system is best for cooling in low humidity climates but
can be modified to work in high humidity climates.
(Effectively provides heat in southern U.S. latitudes during
the heating season for one story or upper stories of
buildings.)
Water is usually stored in large plastic or fiberglass
containers covered by glazing and the space below is
warmed by radiant heat from the warm water above.
These require somewhat elaborate drainage systems,
movable insulation to cover and uncover the water at
appropriate times, and a structural system to support up to
65 lbs/sq ft dead load.
The use of a south facing air collector to naturally convect air into a
storage area is a variation on the active solar system air collector. These
are passive collectors. Convective air collectors are located lower than
the storage area so that the heated air generated in the collector
naturally rises into the storage area and is replaced by return air from
the lower cooler section of the storage area. Heat can be released from
the storage area either by opening vents that access the storage by
mechanical means (fans), or by conduction if the storage is built into the
house.
The sunroom has some advantages as an isolated gain approach in that
it can provide additional usable space to the house and plants can be
grown in it quite effectively.
The convective air collector by comparison becomes more complex in
trying to achieve additional functions from the system. This is a
drawback in this area where space heating is less of a concern than in
colder regions where the system would be used longer. It is best to use a
system that provides more than one function if the system is not an
integral part of the building.
Solar chimney
In its simplest form, the solar chimney consists of a black
painted chimney. During the day solar energy heats the chimney and
the air within it, creating an updraft of air in the chimney.
The suction created at the chimney's base can be used to ventilate and
cool the building below.[1] In most parts of the world it is easier to
harness wind power for such ventilation as with a windcatcher, but on
hot windless days a Solar chimney can provide ventilation where
otherwise there would be none.
Chimney
A chimney is a structure that provides ventilation for hot
gases, air or smoke out to the exterior of a building. They
are verticle to ensure that the gases flow smoothly.
The space inside a chimney is called a flue.
The height of a chimney influences its ability to transfer flue
gases to its exterior. Taller chimneys can allow for partial or
complete self neutralization of airbourne chemicals before
they reach ground level.
Chimneys should be at least 1 m above the roof where they
exit and 0.6 m higher than any part of the roof that is within
3 m.
The taller the chimney the better as it provides a greater
accumulated pressure difference due to the taller column of
arm air inside the flue.
Solar Chimneys
A vertical shaft that utilizes solar
energy to enhance the natural
stack ventilation. Thermal
chimneys can improve natural
ventilation in buildings by using
the convection of air heated by
passive solar energy. During the
day solar energy heats the
chimney and the air within it,
creating an updraft. The suction
created at the chimney’s base
can be used to ventilate and cool
the building below.
There are however a number of solar chimney variations. The basic
design elements of a solar chimney are:
1) The solar collector area: This can be located in the top part of the
chimney or can include the entire shaft. The orientation, type of
glazing, insulation and thermal properties of this element are
crucial for harnessing, retaining and utilizing solar gains.
2) The main ventilation shaft: The location, height, cross section
and the thermal properties of this structure are also very
important.
3) The inlet and outlet air apertures: The sizes, location as well as
aerodynamic aspects of these elements are also significant.
Hot air rises, and cold air sinks, but stack
effect ventilation reverses in summer
Like wind, the stack effect can move large
volumes of air through a building
envelope. In the winter, the warm air in a
heated building is lighter (less dense) than
the cold air outside the building; that
warm bubble of air wants to rise up and
out. The flow of air leaving the top of the
building draws cold air into cracks at the
bottom.
The reverse happens in summer when hot
air outside of an air-conditioned house can
push cooler indoor air down from the
ceiling and out of cracks in the basement.
At least in theory, this can lead to moisture
problems on the top floor.
Roof Radiation Trap, which utilizes solar energy for heating of buildings in winter and
nocturnal radiation for cooling in summer. The radiation trap consists of fixed
insulating layer separated from the flat roof and glazing, protected by hinged
insulating panel, in the southern gap between the roof and the fixed insulation. This
fixed insulating layer is covered by corrugated metal sheets, painted white, which
serve as nocturnal radiators in summer.

The radiation trap is integrated with the building, thermally as well as architecturally.
In winter the sun energy penetrates through the glazing and is absorbed directly in the
roof, which serves as a combined collector, storage for one night and heat distribution
system.

The hot air in the space between the flat roof and the fixed insulation is blown into a
thermal storage of gravel, under the floor or inside the building. The stored heat is
“recovered” by forced convection during cloudy days.
In summer the penetration of solar radiation during daytime is prevented by the
hinged insulating panel. At night the painted external metal layer is cooled by outgoing
radiation and the air under the corrugations is blown into the space of the radiation
trap and cools the roof, which, in turn, serves as a heat sink during the next day.
Nocturnal evaporative cooling can supplement the radiant cooling.
Radiant Roof for reflecting outside Summer Heat
Radiant Barrier

Inside Attic Applied Radiant Roof for reflecting inside

winter Heat
Attic Ventilation is a crucial part of a home’s moisture and heat
management system. Attic ventilation is usually passive in nature and
relies on convective air flow–intake and exhaust. Cooler air is drawn in
through the lower vents, then moves along the eaves, then rises to the
top of the attic where it passes out through the upper vents. By venting
moisture and heat, this process allows a home to be more energy
efficient. It helps preserve the integrity of a home’s building
components, making it more durable, and lessening the need for costly
repairs. It also helps prevent the growth of harmful mildews and molds
that can damage human health.