(GPS) is a military space system operated by

the U.S. Air Force that continuously

broadcasts precise time signals.
These signals can be used worldwide to aid
position location, navigation, and timing.
GPS is an information resource that supports
a wide range of civil, scientific, and
commercial functions rapidly expanded for
international uses.
• The Stone Age
It involved use of stones, trees and mountains as
points of reference.
• The Star Age
It involved use of celestial bodies such as Sun,
Moon and other stars as points of reference
(Celestial Navigation).
• The Radio Age
It involved use of radio signals for positioning.
• The Satellite Age
It involved use of satellite-based radio
navigation with satellites as points of reference
 Radio Navigation Systems
radio signals for distance measurements:
Accurate measurement of radio signal travel
time is required since one microsecond of
error in measuring the travel time is equal to
300 meters of error in distance as speed of
radio signals is the same as the speed of light
 Some characteristics of this age are as follows:
• Overcoming the limitations of radio navigation
with Improved radio transmitters
• Wider coverage: due to high altitudes of
Satellite's orbit.
• The accuracy in computing the position depends
on the accuracy in computing the location of
reference points (satellites).
• Continuously monitoring of satellite locations
and their orbits.
• 24 hr, all weather, 3-D positioning.
 Transit
 The first US Navy operational satellite navigation
system, also known as NAVSAT (Navy Navigation
Satellite System), was based on the Doppler effect.
 Purpose
 Locating - Ballistic missile and submarines
 Navigation - Sea and air traffic
 Surveying - Hydrographic and geodetic
 The satellites broadcast ephemeris information
(position and velocity information of satellites)
continuously on 150 and 400 MHz.
 The Doppler effect (or the Doppler shift) is
the change in frequency or wavelength of a
wave (or other periodic event) for an observer
moving relative to its source.
 Compared to the emitted frequency, the
received frequency is higher during the
approach, identical at the instant of passing
by, and lower during the recession.
 A geodetic satellite can also carry electronic
signaling equipment to produce the Doppler
effect which can be used for geodetic purposes.
 The Doppler observational system was derived
from the fact that while a satellite transmitter
sends a continuous unmodulated wave at a fixed
frequency, the received signal at the tracking
stations exhibits a shift in frequency due to the
relative velocity of the satellite and observing
station
 High Ranging (HIRAN) system was developed during World war II.
• Inertial Survey System (ISS) was developed, which required
vehicle (truck or helicopter) to occupy a point of known
coordinates (X, Y, Z) and remain stationary for zero velocity
update.
 Concept of satellite position fixing was tested with the launch of
the first Sputnik
 US Navy developed the Navy Navigation Satellite System (NNSS),
which is commonly known as the Transit system.
 In mid 1980's US Department of Defense (DoD) began to
implement a second generation, satellite positioning system
known as NAVSTAR (Navigation System with Time and Ranging),
commonly called the Global Positioning System (GPS)
 Russian GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System comprises
24 satellites in three orbital planes.
 European Commission is developing its own Global Navigation
Satellite System (GNSS) called GALILEO
• Suitable for different platforms: aircraft, ship, land-based and space
(missiles and satellites),
• Ability to handle a wide variety of dynamics,
• Real-time positioning, velocity and time determination capability
to an appropriate accuracy,
• Single global geodetic datum (reference system) for defining
position,
• Differential accuracy standards: highest accuracy to be restricted
to a certain class of authorized users,
• Resistant to jamming (intentional and unintentional),
• Redundancy provisions to ensure the survivability of the system,
• Passive positioning system that does not require the transmission
of signals from the user to the satellite(s),
• Ability to provide the service to an unlimited number of users and
world-wide coverage
• Low cost, low power, therefore highly complex satellite segment,
• Total replacement of the Transit 1 satellite and other terrestrial
navigation aid systems.
Comprises three major segments:
 Space Segment
 Control Segment
 User Segment

System satellites can be arranged into different

groups /generations called blocks..
 Constitutes satellite constellation which downlinks
data including coded ranging signals, position
information, atmospheric data, and almanac (data
about approximate orbit information of all satellites).
Basic functions of satellites include:
 Receive and store information transmitted by the control
station
 Perform limited data processing by its own computer
 Maintain very accurate time by means of onboard 2
cesium and 2 rubidium oscillators
 Transmit information to the user by the signal message
 Maneuver to position in space controlled by the control
segment
SIMPLIFIED REPRESENTATION OF
NOMINAL GPS CONSTELLATION
 This segment is responsible for operating the GPS with the primary
function to update navigational message of the satellites. It estimates
Parameters describing the satellites' orbit and clock performance
 Health status of the satellites
 Requirement for any repositioning of satellites.
 It consists of a network of Master Contro Station (MCS), Tracking or
Monitoring Stations, and Transmitting Stations
 MCS can implement a controlling methodology referred to as Selective
Availability (SA) to limit civilian access to the system's full capabilities
that involves introducing slowly varying time errors by dithering the
satellite clock and by altering the navigational message (the satellite
orbital data).
 Computations are carried out at MCS using this information and an up-
to-date navigation message is uploaded to the satellites several times
per day per satellite via uplink or transmitting stations

Control segments also consists of sub segments

 Consists of GPS receiver units with capability to
obtain real time positioning.
 GPS receivers are hand-held radio-
receivers/computers which measure the time
that the radio signal takes to travel from a GPS
satellite until it arrives at the GPS antenna.
 Using the travel time multiplied by the speed of
light provides a calculation of range to each
satellite in view. From this and additional
information on the satellites orbit and velocity,
the internal GPS receiver software calculates its
position through a process of resection.
 GPS signals use two microwave carrier
signals: L1 frequency (1575.42 MHz) and C/A
Code and P Code modulated
 L2 frequency (1227.60 MHz) and only P-Code
modulated
 Coordinate Reference: World Geodetic
System-84 (WGS-84) Earth Centered Earth
Fixed (ECEF)
 Unlike conventional surveying procedures, there is no need for intervisibility
between stations.
 Independent of weather conditions as a result of using radio frequencies to
transmit the signals.
 Use of same field and data reduction procedures results in position accuracy
which are independent of network shape or geometry and are primarily a
function of inter-station distance.
 GPS surveying provides generally homogeneous accuracy. Hence, geodetic
network planning in the classical sense is no longer relevant. The points can be
established wherever they are required and need not be located at evenly
distributed sites at top mountains to satisfy intervisibility, or network geometry
criteria.
 GPS surveying is more efficient, more flexible and less time consuming
positioning technique than using conventional terrestrial survey technologies.
 GPS can be used to obtain high accuracy three dimensional (3D) information,
anywhere and any time with relatively little effort on a global datum.
 The GPS instrumentation and the data processing software do not radically
change even if very high or moderately high accuracies are required (from 1 part
in 104 to 1 part in 106 ).
 GPS requires that there is clear opening to sky without any obstruction to the signals by overhanging
branches or structures (though the antenna can be raised above the obstruction). Hence, underground
usage is not possible. Further, there may be limited applications in densely settled urban areas.
 One needs careful advanced planning to realize true potential of GPS. Various issues related to
transportation, travel, and logistic support need to be sorted out before actual survey work for higher
efficiency.
 Frequently, GPS surveyed sites may not be useful for conventional surveys due to intervisibility, shape and
geometry requirements.
 Two intervisible stations would have to established by GPS in order to satisfy the requirement for azimuth
data for use by conventional (line-of-sight) survey methods.
 Since GPS coordinates are available in global WGS-84 datum, reliable coordinate transformation schemes
are required for transforming GPS coordinates into a local geodetic system for their integration with results
from conventional surveys.
 GPS results are, in general, more accurate than the surrounding control marks established by terrestrial
techniques over time. Comparison of GPS and terrestrial results will be the source of confusion,
controversy and conflict for many years to come.
 Since GPS vertical information is not available in universally acceptable geoid based height system, GPS
heights have to be reduced to a sea level datum by suitable transformation.
 The GPS instrumentation is still comparatively expensive. Although the price of one receiver is likely to
soon match that of a theodolite-EDM instrument, generally a minimum of two are required for most survey
works.
 Because of complex procedures for planning, data reduction and post-processing, GPS surveys require
skilled personnel for operations.
10 TO 15 YEARS AGO
 For specialists only
 National and continental
networks
 Observation times not
important
 Accuracy important
 Reliable results often
required
 operator intervention
Software was hardly user
friendl
5 TO 7 YEARS AGO
 Post processing only
 Primary application of GPS for
control surveys
 A few applications for detail
and topographic surveys
 Main improvements were
in
 Smaller receivers
 Rapid static
 Kinematic, Stop & Go surveys
 User friendly software
 All types of people expect to be able to use it, for all types
of applications.
 Accuracy and reliability almost taken for granted.
 Speed, ease-of-use, user features are key requirements
 Software has to be automated and user friendly.
 Constant demand for additional capabilities.
 GPS surveying to centimeter accuracy is an indirect
measurement system.
 Use of code measurements for cm level accuracy, phase
measurements for mm level accuracy; use of atmospheric
models, sophisticated processing algorithms, etc.
 GPS processing is quite complex, yet today we expect it to
be a standard surveying tool, almost like a total station or
EDM.
GPS Principles

At least four (4)

satellites are required
to solve four (4)
unknown parameters:
Latitude, Longitude,
Height and Receiver
time offset (difference
between the receiver
clock's indicated time
and a well-defined
time scale reference
such as UTC
(Coordinated Universal
Time), TAI
(International Atomic
Time) or GPST (GPS
Time))
 All GPS satellites have synchronized atomic
clocks as time keepers.
 The coordinates of all satellites, acting as
moving control stations, are known precisely
with the help of system control.
 Satellite coordinates and time signals are
transmitted to ground receiver.
 These signals reach the ground delayed by
distance traveled.
 Making use of simple resection principle and the
range information to each satellites, the receiver
computes its coordinates
principle

4 known GPS satellite coordinates

are shown as (Xi, Yi, Zi).
The unknown coordinates of GPS
receiver u=(Ux, Uy, Uz) are
calculated by solving 4 range (or
pseudorange P) equations.
A minimum of four equations are
needed to solve for four unknowns-
three unknown position coordinates
(Ux, Uy, Uz) and to account for the
fact that atomic clocks onboard
GPS satellites and quartz clocks in
GPS receivers are not synchronized.
This unknown time variable is called
receiver time offset or bias (dTu).
 The structure of GPS carrier signals, codes and their
combinations is quite complex. Since the carriers are
pure sinusoids, they cannot be used easily for
instantaneous positioning purposes and therefore two
codes are modulated onto them: the C/A (coarse
acquisition) code and P (precise) code. The codes (P
and C/A) are nothing but binary sequence of
information generated by a complicated algorithm.
 For purposes of imposing these binary data onto the
carriers, all of the codes are transferred from the 0
and 1 states to the -1 and 1 status respectively.
The technique is called binary bi-phase modulation
(alternatively binary phase shift keying BPSK)
 Two micro wave L-band (also called Carrier)
waves
 Ranging codes modulated on the carrier
waves
 Navigation message
 The structure of GPS carrier signals and codes is quite complex in order
to satisfy the several requirements as given below:
 Multi-user system:
 GPS is used for one-way measurements (a listen-only system)
 Real-time positioning:
 Since there is simultaneous measurements to many satellites, there is a need
to identify different signals
 Unambiguous range measurements - need to determine signal delay
 Satellite positions needed hence one needs broadcast ephemerides
 High accuracy positioning:
 Microwave carrier frequency - 1.2 to 1.6 GHz; use of dual-frequency to
minimize ionospheric delay
 High frequency modulation
 Anti-jamming requirement: GPS uses a special technique called the Spread
spectrum technique for this purpose
 Military and civilian users:
 GPS needs two different codes and restriction on dual-frequency use in order
to provide differential access to civilian and military/authorized users
 Two types of services are available

 SPS (Standard Positioning Service)

Positioning accuracy that is provided by GPS
measurements based on the single frequency
 PPS (Precise Positioning Service)
Highest level of dynamic positioning accuracy
that is provided by GPS measurements based
on the dual frequency
 code phase receivers
 carrier phase receivers

These receiver types can be further subdivided as

 C/A code receivers
 P-code receivers
 Codeless receivers
 Single and dual-frequency receivers
 Receivers using cross-correlation or squaring or
P-W techniques
 Use almanac data from satellite navigation message for operation and signal
processing
 Provides real-time navigation data
 Have anywhere-fix capability because it can synchronize itself with GPS time at a
point with unknown coordinates once a lock on the signals of four satellites has
been obtained and, consequently, a quicker start-up time at survey
commencement.
 Unique capability to begin calculations without being given an approximate
location and time.
 In code based receivers, the phase position of the received code sequence is
compared with the phase of an identical code replica, generated by the receiver
(using the same algorithm as used for the code from the satellites) via a
correlation technique. Hence, the observable is also called the code phase. The
two code sequences are shifted stepwise in phase until maximum correlation is
obtained.
 A complete code dependent correlation channel produces following observables
and information:
 code phase
 carrier phase
 change of carrier phase (Doppler frequency)
 satellite message
a) Single frequency receiver
 Tracks L1 frequency signal only
 Cheaper than dual frequency receivers
 Used effectively to relative positioning mode for accurate
baselines of less than 50 km or where ionosphere effects
can generally be ignored.
(b) Dual frequency receiver Tracks both L1 and L2 frequency
signal
 More expensive than a single frequency receiver
 Can more effectively resolve longer baselines of more
than 50 km where ionosphere effects have a larger impact
 Eliminate almost all ionosphere effects by combining L1
and L2 observations.
SINGLE FREQUENCY
RECIEVERS
 Access to L1 only
 Mostly civilian users
 Much cheaper
 Modulated with C/A and P
codes
 Corrupted by ionospheric
delay
 Used for short base lines
 Most receivers are coded
DOUBLE FREQUENCY
RECIEVERS
 Access to L1 and L2
 Mostly military users
 Very expensive
 It may not be possible for
civilian users once Y code is
there.
 Almost independent of
ionospheric delay
 Used for both long and short
base lines
 Most receivers with dual
frequency are codeless
Codeless techniques
Various codeless techniques are squaring, code aided
squaring, cross correlation, P-W correlation

Other classification of receivers

(a) Based on data types used
(b) Based on technical realization of the channels
(c) Receiver based on user community/application
Characteristics
 carrier phase data as observables
 availability of both frequencies (L1, L2 )
 access to the P code, at least for larger distances, and in geographical
region with strong ionospheric disturbances (low and high latitudes).
Factors
 Tracking all signals from each visible satellite at any time (GPS only
system requires 12 dual frequency channels; GPS+GLONASS system
needs 20 dual frequency channels)
 Both frequencies should be available
 Low phase and code noise
 High data rate ( > 10 Hz) for kinematic applications
 High memory capacity
 Low power consumption and weight and small size
 Full operational capability under AS
 Capability to track weak signals (under foliage, and difficult
environmental conditions)
 multipath mitigation, interference suppression, stable antenna phase
centre
 Good onboard and office software
 1 pps timing output
 event marker (for marking special events or area
of interest to the GPS use)
 ability to accept external frequencies
 fast data transfer to computer
 few or no cable connection
 radio modem
 DGPS and RTK capability (explained later)
 operate over difficult meteorological conditions
 ease in interfacing to other systems and from
other manufacturer
 ease and flexibility of use (multi purpose
applications)
 flexible set up (tripod, pole, pillar, vehicle)
 Functionality Functionally two groups of GPS receiver structures
 Application processing
 Signal processing
Application processing
 Time and frequency transfer
 Static and kinematic surveying
 Navigation
 Ionospheric Total Electron Content (TEC) monitoring
 Operation as differential GPS (DGPS) reference station
 GPS signal integrity monitoring
Signal processing
 Splitting of incoming signal into multiple satellite signals
 Generation of reference carrier
 Generation of reference PRN code
 Acquisition of satellite signal
 Tracking of code and carrier
 Demodulation and system data extraction
 Extraction of code phase measurements
 Extraction of carrier frequency and carrier phase
 Extraction of satellite Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) information
 Relationship of GPS system time
 Basic principle of position fixing is that of
resection in surveying.
 Mainly two types of position fixing are used in
GPS measurements:
 Positioning by pseudoranging
 Positioning by carrier phase measurements
measure of distance between satellite and the receiver'
antenna, referring to the epochs (time) of emission and
reception of codes.
 The transmission (travel) time is measured by correlating
identical PRN codes generated by the satellite with those
generated internally by the receiver.
 Various errors such as the satellite and receiver clocks
offset, atmospheric delay, multipath etc. tend to corrupt
the true range (also called as the geometric range)
measurement to produce what is called as the
pseudorange.
 Clock offset can be computed so that relative time of
transmission and reception of a radio signal is known (T).
With the known velocity of radio wave and by precise
measurement of time of travel, the distance/range (D) can
be computed as: D = C x T
 the measured quantity is the difference between
the received satellite carrier phase (as sensed by
the receiver antenna) and the phase of the
internal receiver oscillator. Phase measurement
have high accuracy: 3 – 10 mm.
 Ambiguity Measurement of initial ambiguity is
must for the carrier phase measurement
processing. The process of finding out the value
of ambiguity is called ambiguity resolution.
Point positioning

A single GPS unit

located on an
unknown point is
used to determine the
3D coordinates of
that unknown point
referenced. Accuracy
of such method
depends on the
duration of
observation and the
accuracy of satellite
ephemeris
 Two or more GPS receive signals from the same set of
satellites simultaneously. One GPS unit, known as the
reference or base station, is always positioned on a known
point. The observations are processed with respect to the
base station to obtain the position of other station known
as the rover station.
 By using this method, the accuracy achieved is much
higher than that in point positioning because errors
common to both receivers get cancelled.
 These methods are broadly grouped as follows:
 Static positioning
All receivers remain stationary and collect carrier phase over a
period of time.
 Kinematic positioning
One receiver remains stationary at reference station while other
rovers move from one point to another
 Well-defined coordinate systems are required for positioning points in 2D
or 3D space on surface of earth. However, one needs to represent or
idealize earth in a manner suitable for proper representation of position.
Several idealizations have been proposed for the shape of earth.
 For example, the first approximation to shape of earth is Geoid, the
theoretical shape of earth. Differences in the density of the earth cause
variation in the strength of the gravitational pull, in turn causing regions
to dip or bulge above or below a mathematical reference surface called
ellipsoid. This undulating shape is the Geoid. The geoid is very irregular
and the magnitude of geoidal deformation depends on the variation in
the strength of the magnetic field, and on geologic history.
 A rotational ellipsoid is another mathematical approximation to earth's
shape. It is an imaginary, regular and smooth mathematical surface over
which computation of coordinates becomes very easy. An ellipsoidal
surface can be further approximated by a sphere.
 The Indian system is a topocentric system which is realized by
 Choosing an initial point (origin)
 Specifying, the latitude and longitude of the initial point
 Azimuth of a line from this point
 Two parameters of a reference surface (ellipsoid):
▪ Components of deflection of vertical
▪ Geoidal undulation at the initial point
 Indian Geodetic datum, using Everest spheroid is a local geodetic
datum, which best fits to certain extent the Indian subcontinent. It
is non-geocentric ellipsoid, and its origin is far away from the
geocentre (C. G. of the Earth).
 The geodetic coordinates based on Everest spheroid differ
considerably (in many cases even hundreds of meters) as
compared to WGS 84 and other International ellipsoids.
 GPS is one of the fastest moving technologies in the world. It has find application
in almost all areas requiring spatial coordinate or time. The following is the list of
some application areas where GPS has been used widely.
 Utility industry
 Natural resources
 Precision farming
 Civil Engineering applications
 Structural deformations
 Open pit mining
 Land and marine seismic surveying
 Airborne mapping
 Seafloor mapping
 Vehicle navigation
 Transit system
 Retail industry
 Cadastral surveying
 Stakeout (waypoint navigation)
 Location based services (LBS)
 Accurate determination of position by GPS depends on treatment of
various types of errors inherent in the technology. Errors in GPS
observations can be categorized on the bases of nature or source of
errors as follows: On the basis of nature of errors
 Random errors
 Instrument noise
 Systematic errors
 Satellite related errors
 Receiver related errors
 Signal propagation errors
 Gross errors
 Loss of satellite signal lock
 Corruption of GPS signals due to any power line or object having magnetic
characteristics
 Improper leveling and/or centering of receiver antenna
 Errors in measuring height of antenna center from ground
 Satellite dependent
Originate from satellite are found to be part of satellite transmitted signals
 Orbit related: Ephemeris errors and orbit perturbations
 Satellite clock
 Selective Availability (SA)
 Receiver Dependent
Originate from receiver
 Receiver clock
 Cycle slips
 Antenna phase center movement
 Receiver noise
 Observation medium dependent
Originate during signal propagation from satellite to receiver
 Ionospheric delay
 Tropospheric delay
 Station dependent
 Multipath
 Satellite dependent errors result in ephemeris errors (EE) as a result of (a) natural orbital
perturbations due to various forces and (b) other factors such as selective availability (SA)
and drift in satellite clocks. Satellite dependent EE are most difficult to completely model,
correct and compensate for because many forces acting on the predicted orbit of a satellite
are difficult to measure directly. Satellite orbital bias is defined as the discrepancy between
the true position (and velocity) of a satellite and its broadcast ephemeris.
 Satellite position as a function of time, included in broadcast navigation message, are
predicted from previous GPS observations at ground control stations.
 Ephemeris information to calculate GPS satellite positions is generated from the tracking
data collected by five monitor stations of the control segment. The collected tracking data
is processed at the MCS and the satellite navigation message information is uploaded to
every satellite. Errors in the prediction of a satellite position are transmitted to the user in
the satellite data message and are available to GPS users at the time of observation.
 Satellite motion is controlled by Keplerian laws which in mean sense considers motion
about ideal earth having perfectly radial gravitational field and no atmosphere (Nassar,
1994). Ideal earth : Spherical earth having axis of rotation passing through its centre of
gravity (CG) and having homogeneous mass distribution.
 Real earth : Earth is non-homogeneous body of random mass distribution and non radial
gravitational field. Hence, motion is governed by Newton's laws where satellite position in
space described by six Keplerian elements
  In astronomy, Kepler's laws of planetary
motion are three scientific laws describing the
motion of planets around the Sun.
1. The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at
one of the two foci.
2. A line segment joining a planet and the Sun
sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of
time.
3. The square of the orbital period of a planet is
proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis
of its orbit.
Figure 1: Illustration of Kepler's three laws with two planetary orbits.

(1) The orbits are ellipses, with focal points ƒ1 and ƒ2 for the first planet and ƒ1 and ƒ3 for the second planet. The Sun is placed
in focal point ƒ1. (2) The two shaded sectors A1 and A2 have the same surface area and the time for planet 1 to cover segment
A1 is equal to the time to cover segment A2. (3) The total orbit times for planet 1 and planet 2 have a ratio a13/2 : a23/2.
 Errors resulting from the accuracy of the orbit
computation procedure itself
Data used are P code pseudo-ranges, and although the
tracking geometry is not strong (most of the tracking
stations are in the equatorial belt), accuracies better than
5 m are achievable. Errors resulting from unpredictable
orbital motion during the period since upload
These are essentially the prediction errors. Their
magnitude can vary from a few meters (close to the time
of navigation message upload) to several tens of meters.
EE depends on:
 Number and location of tracking stations
 Orbital force model
 Satellite geometry
 There are two types of ephemerides (plural of ephemeris or file of values from which the
position and velocity information of satellite at a given time can be derived):
 (i) Broadcast ephemerides
 (ii) Precise ephemerides
 (i) Broadcast ephemerides These are actually predicted satellite positions broadcast within
the navigation message that are transmitted from the satellites in real time.
 Satellites tracking data obtained from monitor stations is used by MCS to compute new
parameters for the satellite orbits which are transmitted back to the satellites.
 Upload is performed daily with new predicted orbital elements and transmitted every hour
by the navigation message.
 This ephemerides is acquired in real time by a receiver capable of acquiring either the C/A
or P-code.
 (ii) Precise ephemerides These are based on actual tracking data that are post-processed to
obtain the more accurate satellite positions.
 These are available at a later date and are more accurate than the broadcast ephemerides
because they are based on actual tracking data and not predicted data.
 For non-military users, these ephemerides are available in post-mission mode with delay
from 12 hr for IGS ultra rapid orbit to about 12 days for the most precise IGS precise service.
Corresponding accuracies for these precise orbits are in order of a few decimeters to 1
decimeter respectively. Details of different ephemerides is given in Table 9.2 where the
term latency indicates the time gap after which the data is available.
 There are two problems with satellite clocks
(a) relativistic effect
(b) clock drift
(a) Relativistic effect From theory of relativity, clock in orbit will appear to run faster than on earth
(more speed and weaker gravitational force). It results in two effects:
(1) First effect:
One has to take into account the time dilation before satellite is sent to orbit. To ensure that
clocks will actually achieve the fundamental frequency of 10.23 MHz, the frequency is set a bit
slow before launch (10.22999999545 MHz).
(2) Second effect:
It is attributable to eccentricity (0.02) of orbit causing time error of 45.8 ns. This error is corrected
in GPS receiver itself avoiding an error of about 14 m.
(b) Clock drift Each GPS block II and IIA satellites have four high quality atomic clocks, two cesium and
rubidium atomic clocks. One of the cesium clocks is used for time-keeping and signal
synchronization as they behave better compared to rubidium clocks; others are backups.
 Stability of GPS clocks:
 Rubidium clocks: 1 to 2 parts in 1013 over a period of one day or about 8.64 to 17.28 ns per day
 Cesium clocks: stability improves to 1 to 2 parts in 1014 over 10 days
 Hydrogen masers: 1 part in 1014.
 Unavoidable temporally variant clock errors are source of a significant bias which are monitored
by the control segment during tracking data analysis. The primary purpose of clock correction is
to reduce error from about 1 ms of satellite clock error to around 30 ns of GPS time.
 GPS antenna receives incoming satellite signal and converts its energy into an
electric current to be handled by it. Antenna phase center, the point at which the
GPS signal is received, does not coincide with its physical (geometrical) center
and varies depending on
 the elevation and the azimuth of the GPS satellite
 the intensity of the observed signal
 Error magnitude depends on the antenna type, and is typically in the order of a
few cm.
 Difficult to model the antenna-phase-center variation and, therefore, one should
be careful when selecting the antenna type.
 The following points may be noted:
 Due to its rather small size, this error is neglected in most of the practical GPS applications.
 For short baselines with the same types of antennas at each end, the errors are highly
correlated over distance, the phase-center error can be canceled sufficiently by differencing if
the antennas are oriented in the same direction. Hence, using a single frequency might be
more appropriate for short baselines in the static mode.
 There are different phase-center errors on L1 and L2 carrier-phase observations thus affecting
the accuracy of the ionosphere free linear combination, particularly when observing short
baselines.
 Mixing different types of antennas or using different orientations will not cancel the antenna
phase center variation error.
 Results from limitations of the receiver's electronics.Therefore, a good GPS system should have a
minimum noise level.
 The contribution of the receiver measurement noise to the range error will depend on the quality of
the GPS receiver. Typical average value for range error is of the order of 0.6 m (at 1σ level).
 Generally, a GPS receiver performs a self-test when the user turns it on. However, for high-cost
precise GPS systems, user can perform system evaluation by following two tests :
 zero baseline
 short baseline tests
 (a) Zero baseline test Provides useful information on the receiver performance and identify receiver
problems such as interchannel biases and cycle slips. However, it does not provide any information
on the antenna/preamplifier noise.
 Involves using one antenna/preamplifier followed by a signal splitter that feeds two or more GPS
receivers. As one antenna is used, the baseline solution should be zero; any nonzero value is
attributed to the receiver noise.
 (b) Short baseline test Useful to evaluate the actual field performance of a GPS system to account for
the antenna/preamplifier noise component.
 Use short baselines of a few meters apart, observed on two consecutive days.
 In this case, the double difference residuals of one day would contain the system noise and the
multipath effect. All other errors would cancel sufficiently. As the multipath signature repeats every
sidereal day, differencing the double difference residuals between the two consecutive days
eliminates the effect of multipath and leaves only the system noise.
 Ionospheric delay At the uppermost part of the earth's atmosphere,
ultraviolet and X-ray radiations coming from the sun interact with the gas
molecules and atoms causing gas ionization resulting in a large number
of free negatively charged electrons and positively charged atoms and
molecules.
 Such a region of the atmosphere where gas ionization takes place is
called the ionosphere.
 Ionosphere extends from an altitude of approximately 50 km to about
1,000 km or even more. In fact, the upper limit of the ionospheric region
is not clearly defined.
 Ionosphere is a dispersive medium, which means it
 bends the GPS radio signal : causes a negligible range error, particularly if the
satellite elevation angle is greater than 50
 changes its speed during passage through various ionospheric layers to reach
a GPS receiver: causes a significant range error.
 affects different frequencies differently
 Electron density within ionospheric region is not constant and changes
with altitude and time.
Station dependent
errors

Multipath It is a major error source

for both the carrier-phase and
pseudo range measurements and
occurs when GPS signal arrives at
receiver antenna through different
paths. These paths can be the
direct line of sight signal and
reflected signals from objects
surrounding the receiver antenna
such as buildings and lakes.
Multipath distorts original signal
through interference with the
reflected signals at the GPS
antenna.
Magnitude of multipath errors is
~15 cm for the L1 carrier and 15-20
m for pseudoranges.
Care should be taken that there are
no reflecting surfaces around the
antenna
 User Equivalent Range Error (UERE) or associated standard deviation (
σr): Measure of the accuracy of single pseudorange measurements.
 When each type of error or bias is expressed as a range itself, each
quantity is known as UERE and expresses the individual contribution of
each bias to the overall error and gives the accuracy of individual range
measurements to each satellite
 Geometry of satellites used in computation or Dilution of Precision
(DOP): GPS ranging errors are magnified due to geometrical
arrangement amongst the range vectors between the receiver and the
satellites. It is a quality indicator of the results that can be expected from
a GPS point position.
 It solely based on the geometry of the satellites and therefore can be
computed without any pseudorange observations being recorded. It is
equivalent to the concept of strength of figure used in surveying and
varies rapidly with time since satellite are moving control points
 The combined effect of ephemeris uncertainties, propagation
errors, clock and timing errors, and receiver noise, projected on to
the line connecting the observer and satellite is called the User
Equivalent Range Error (UERE) or User Range Error URE.
 Sometimes total error is divided as :
 Signal in Space (SIS) URE (abbreviated as SISRE):
▪ Operational Control Segment (OCS) is responsible for this group of error.
▪ Includes satellite clock and ephemeris prediction errors, OCS state process
noise, and minor residual error.
 User Equipment Error (UEE):
▪ Particular user's equipment and correction model is responsible for this group
of errors.
▪ Includes single frequency ionospheric model error, tropospheric model error,
receiver noise, receiver phase centre variation, or multipath effects.
 Geometrical interpretation of Dilution of Precision DOP As
mentioned earlier DOP is an indicator of three dimensional
positioning accuracy as consequence of relative position of GPS
satelllites with respect to a GPS receiver. In order to attach a
geometrical interpretation to this, we use a term called
geometriacal dilution of precision or GDOP
 GDOP : Geometrical Dilution of Precision, (measure of accuracy in
3-D position and time)
PDOP : Position Dilution of Precision (measure of accuracy in 3-D
position), also called spherical DOP
HDOP : Horizontal Dilution of Precision (measure of accuracy in 2-
D position, for example Latitude and Longitude)
VDOP : Vertical Dilution of Precision (measure of accuracy in 1-D
position, Height)
TDOP : Time Dilution of Precision (measure of accuracy in Time)
 They can be individually computed.
 GDOP is a scalar quantity and a measure of the strength of the geometry
of satellite configuration at an instant of time and not for the whole
survey session of time.
 Satellites spread around horizon provide the best horizontal accuracy but
weak vertical position. Conversely, if satellites are at high altitudes, then
precision in horizontal position drops but in vertical position it improves.
 Lower the GDOP/PDOP value, better the instantaneous point position
solution.
 PDOP values 4-5 are very good
 PDOP values more than 10 are very poor
 VDOP is typically around 4-5
 Generally, GDOP and PDOP should be ≤ 5 and HDOP should be between 2-3
 In static surveys (explained later), it is desirable to obtain observations
during a time of rapidly changing GDOP and/or PDOP
 DOP values can be used to select appropriate combination of satellites to
provide best solution. PDOP values can be computed from satellite
ephemerides prior to conducting surveys.
 Accuracy measures Many different measures
are used for describing the accuracies obtainable
from GPS. The most common two terms are
2DRMS and Circular error probability (CEP )
 Other methods include simple statistical
measures (normal distribution of one dimension)
as in Sigma values .
 2DRMS
 2-dimensional position is given as Distance Root
Mean Square (DRMS). It expresses the
probability of being within a circle with radius
DRMS varies between 63.2% and 68.3%
 Method to compute DRMS
Compute the rms of the radial errors, i.e. the
linear distances between the measure and
known (or mean) positions. It can be
predicted by using covariance analysis by
multiplying the HDOP, a measure of the
satellite geometry, by the standard deviation
of the observed pseudoranges. This
predictability makes it a much more
convenient measure in practice.
 Does not have a constant probability attached to
it.
 The associated probability is a function of the
ellipticity of the relevant error ellipse resulting
from a particular satellite geometry. On the
assumption that the pseudorange errors are
normally distributed, this probability lies in the
range 95.4% to 98.2%.
 Often, horizontal (2D) position, can be expressed as sigma
( σ , standard error ) values.
 Calculated for a normal distribution of one variable
(univariate). For example, σNstd. dev. of all Latitude (or
Delta North) values with respect to the average Latitude
(or North value).
 1σN 68.3% of measured positions within 1σNvalue of
average position
2σN 95.4% of measured positions within 2σNvalue of
average position
3σN 99.7% of measured positions within 3σNvalue of
average position.
4σN Almost 100% of measured positions within 4σNvalue
of average position.
 Absolute accuracies : These are estimates of how
close a position is to the truth in the earth's
reference frame. Absolute accuracies are always
represented as constant values.
 Relative accuracies: These are estimates of how
well a vector between two points is measured
(e.g. the accuracy of a distance measurement
between two points). Relative accuracies may be
represented as constant values, as parts per
million (ppm), or both. Parts per million are used
to relate error magnitudes with baseline length.
Three important concepts in GPS positioning
 Single Point (or Point) versus Relative
positioning
 Static versus Kinematic positioning
 Real time versus Post mission (post-
processing based) positioning
 Code measurements are used to compute
receiver position directly where coordinates
of a receiver at an unknown point are sought
with respect to the earth's reference frame by
using the known positions of the GPS
satellites being tracked
 It is also referred to as absolute positioning,
and often just as point positioning.
 Coordinates of a receiver at an unknown point
are sought with respect to a receiver at a known
point using code and/or carrier measurements
The baseline or baseline vector (dx, dy, dz) is
computed from a point of known position to a
point of unknown position. The term differential
positioning is sometimes used interchangeably
with relative positioning which is more often
associated with a specific type of relative
positioning which applies corrections measured
at a known site to measurements at an unknown
site
 Static positioning : A GPS receiver is required
to be stationary while collecting GPS data.
 Kinematic positioning : One receiver, referred
to as a monitor or base, is left stationary on a
known point while a second receiver, referred
to as a rover, is moved over the path to be
positioned.
 Real-time processing: Positions are computed almost
instantaneously, on site. No post processing is required and
positioing results are instantly available. There are two modes for
such positiong - real Time Code RT-DGPS (Code based) and Real
Time Phase RTK (Phase based).
 Post-mission processing: GPS data is combined and reduced after
all data collection has been completed.
 Real-time relative positioning: Needs a data link to transmit
corrections from a monitor receiver at a known point to a rover
receiver at an unknown point.
 Post-mission processing for relative positioning: Needs post-
processing of combination of data from all receivers after an
observation period.
 Even with real-time point positioning, for many GPS applications it
is still necessary to download data and enter it in a database
specific to the user's application.
 Traditionally, 4 types of signal measurement approaches have
been used for positioning with GPS:
 (1) Pseudoranges from Code measurements
(2) Carrier Phases or Carrier Beat Phase or carrier differences
(3) Pseudorange differences from integrated Doppler counts
(4) Differences in signal travel time from interferometric
measurements
 Although all techniques have different characteristics, all are
functions of instantaneous ranges between satellites, the ground
station and their derivative. Generally, the code and pahse values
are two most important observables. Hence, the first two
methods are the main GPS measurement techniques which give
rise to two types of GPS measurement models: (1) Pseudorange
model or code measurement model
(2) Carrier beat phase measurement model
 Code measurements (also referred to as pseudorange measurements)
enable instantaneous position determinations using GPS satellites.
 Pseudoranges to four satellites are used to determine position by
removing uncertainties in (a) X, Y, Z and (b) receiver clocks and then
corrected to produce the range. Positioning accuracy is a function of
intersection geometry and range measurement accuracy.
 Code measurements are the difference in time between when the code is
transmitted from a satellite and received at a GPS receiver, multiplied by
the speed of light.
 measured code pseudorange (P) = c (t i - tj )
P measured code
c speed of light
t i signal reception time
t j signal transmission time
 It represents a direct measurement of satellite to receiver range and can
be expressed as
measured code pseudorange = range + errors
P = ρ + errors
 GPS receivers which record carrier phase, measure the fraction of
one wavelength (i.e. fraction of 19 cm for the L1 carrier) when the
receiver first locks onto a satellite and continuously measure the
carrier phase from that time.
 Number of cycles between the satellite and receiver at initial start
up (known as the ambiguity ) and the measured carrier phase
together represent the satellite-receiver range. A simplified carrier
phase model can be given as:
measured carrier phase = range +
(ambiguity ´ wavelength) + errors
Φ = r + N λ + errors
 Φ measured carrier phase in meters
r satellite-receiver range in meters
N ambiguity (i.e. number of cycles)
λ carrier wavelength in meters.
 Code Carrier
Advantage Non-ambiguous, simple High accuracy potential

disAdvantage Low accuracy More complex

 Code based GPS positioning methods It has primary application in real time
navigation systems where accuracies of the order of ± (0.5 to 5 m) are tolerable.
Hence, only limited engineering survey applications of the technique. Example:
hydrographic survey and dredge positioning.
 Two types of code based positioning:
 Single point positioning (SPP)
 Differential positioning
 Single point positioning (SPP) Achieved by intersecting the measurements from
four or more satellites at a single receiver on the earth's surface almost
instantaneously, using an inexpensive hand-held GPS receiver and by collecting
C/A code measurements. Differential positioning Significantly reduces errors
affecting single point positioning through relative positioning.
 It is the most simple form of relative positioning which can be conducted by:
 applying corrections to the code measurements sensed at a known monitor site, to the
measurements at an unknown rover site.
 using either simpler and cheaper post-mission (post-processed DGPS) or complex real-time
processing needing data link (real time DGPS).
 Real time DGPS is somewhat limited to near line of sight conditions, whereas
post-mission DGPS allows meter or sub-meter positioning up to 300 km and
mostly used for GIS applications.

 It is a code based relative positioning that employs two or more receivers simultaneously tracking
the same satellites. The GPS processing software takes the difference between computed ranges
and the measured code pseudoranges to obtain DGPS corrections. DGPS corrections (based on
L1 pseudorange) are transmitted in a standard RTCM (Radio Technical Commission for Maritime
Service) format, accepted by GPS industry as the standard, to the rover through a communication
link.
 RTCM message type for differential GPS typically consists of
 Reference Station Parameters
 Pseudorange Corrections
 Range Rate (rate of change of range) Corrections
 Rover applies these corrections to measure correct pseudoranges at the rover so as to compute
the rover coordinates.
 In real time DGPS following observations are in order at the reference and rover station (Figure
12.5:
At reference station Reference station on a known point
 Tracks all satellites in view
 Computes corrections for each satellite
 Transmits corrections via a communication link in either propriety format or the RTCM (Radio
Technical Commission for Maritime Service) format
 At the rover station Rover unit receives the corrections via the communication link
 Rover position corrected by applying the received corrections
(a) Measurement domain differential or range correction
method :
 More flexible because the correction is made to the
pseudoranges and hence the rover GPS receiver can
use any combination of corrected ranges to obtain a
solution, and not just the satellite constellation used
at the base station.
 True range is found out after using known coordinates
and calculated coordinates at known point
 The errors computed at the monitor site thereby form
differential corrections which are applied at the
rover/remote site
 Resulting positional errors at the monitor site form
differential corrections which are applied at the rover
site.
 Limitation : Both the rover and base receivers must
use the same satellite constellation to generate their
point solutions, otherwise severe errors can result,
possibly worse than those of the (uncorrected) point
positioning. This is a significant limitation as it is rarely
the case that the same constellation of satellites are
simultaneously visible if the two receivers are a long
distance apart, or when the rover receiver is operating
in cities, where the effect of urban canyons causes
significant obstruction of the satellite signals.
 This method provides a more accurate range resolution
due to the short wavelength (approximately 19 cm for L1
and 24 cm for L2) and the ability of a receiver to resolve
the carrier phase down to about 2 mm. Primary
application in engineering, topographic, and geodetic
surveying, and may be employed with either static or
kinematic methods. Several carrier-based methods are in
use such as static
 rapid static
 kinematic
 stop and go kinematic
 pseudo kinematic
 real time kinematic (RTK) or on-the-fly (OTF) kinematic,
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
 Coordinates are available in  Needs a radio modem
real time in the field in global
WGS-84 or local system (data link)
 Quality control - one knows in  Radio contact can be
the field that the ambiguities interrupted by obstructions
are resolved and that the
results are correct (hills, valleys buildings,
 No post-processing is etc.)
required
 It is a truly one person system
 Several rovers can use one
reference station
 The approach has given rise
to many applications
Static Surveys
 Receiver must resolve phase
ambiguity with each
occupation hence sessions
are longer (more accurate at
the cost of long occupation).
Various methods under this
category are:
 Traditional static
 Rapid Static
 Reoccupation (pseudo-
kinematic and pseudo-static)
Kinematic (dynamic) Surveys
 These surveys have short
durations at each occupation
as these resolve ambiguity
once at the beginning of
session. Then by keeping a
lock on satellites, it maintains
that solution for rest of the
work (short occupation at the
cost of accuracy). Various
methods under this category
are:
 Stop and Go
 Traditional kinematic
 Kinematic On The Fly (KOTF)
 Real Time Kinematic (RTK)
 Similar to standard kinematic procedures and static procedures combined.
Hence, also called pseudo-kinetic and pseudo-static or intermittent static.
 Differences with standard kinematic are:
 Reoccupation does not require static initialization
 Reoccupation requires longer period of time at each point (typically 1-10 minutes)
 Each point must be revisited after about at least an hour and preferably after more than 4
hours
 In reoccupation, the number of satellites does not play essential part and loss of satellite lock
is acceptable (receiver may be turned off while moving)
 Positional error is more than for kinematic or rapid static procedures, hence less
acceptable method for establishing baselines.
 For a given observation time, more sites are occupied than with conventional
static.
 Reference station tracks continuously on a known point wheras the roving
receiver spends a short period on each point
 After one hour each point is reoccupied for a short period of time (1-10 minutes),
Figure 12.4 shows an exqmple of reoccupation where for a reference receiver,
four sites are occupied at different interval of time (after one hour).
The specific time period for an observation is
called a session. The following factors
determine the length of a particular
observation: Length of baseline
 Number of visible satellites (affects
geometry)
 Relative geometry of satellites and change in
geometry
 Signal to noise ratio (SNR) of received
satellite signal.
 Assuming expected horizontal accuracy of 10
mm, clear visibility, and clean data the basline
observation time can be taken from the
following thumb rule (NAVSTAR Global
Positioning System Surveying, 2003):
 For single frequency receiver: Baseline
observation time = 10 minutes + 1 minute/km
 For dual frequency receiver: Baseline
observation time = 5 minutes + 0.5
minute/km
 It is the process of improvement of the accuracy of carrier phase-based
GPS positioning by means of a mathematical process whereby the
ambiguous carrier phase measurements are converted into
unambiguous carrier range measurement.
 There are two approaches for ambiguity resolution:
 Non-real time or kinematic post processing applications
 As part of least squares or Kalman filtering approach for very long observation
time and rounding off real ambiguity values to nearest integer
 Use known baseline (with accurately known coordinates of end points);
Reduces long observation time; Occupy two end points with base and rover
for short time (also called receiver initialization ); Move rover to other points
and use parameters during receiver initialization to get coordinates of new
points.
 Antenna Swap method when no known baseline is available
 Real-time application
 On the Fly (OTF) approach (can also be used for static applications).
 4 different methods of ambiguity resolution havbe been used:
Static Initialization
 Initialize on Known Point
 Antenna swap method
 On The Fly (OTF) or Ambiguity resolution on the Fly (AROF)
Static initialization:
Static mode: The rover must first initialize (resolve the ambiguities)
 Requires a minimum of 5 satellites on L1 and L2
 Normally takes 25 - 30 seconds
 There must be no movement in the antenna during the initialization
period
Moving Mode: Once the ambiguities are resolved the roving unit can
move
 Positions can be recorded when desired
 Lock must be maintained on a minimum of 4 satellites at all times
 If lock is lost the rover must be re-initialized
 Once the ambiguities are resolved the roving
unit can move
 Positions can be recorded when desired
 Lock must be maintained on a minimum of 4
satellites at all times
 If lock is lost the rover must be re-initialized
 It can be used to initialize a survey prior to a stop-and-go survey and to
determine a precise baseline and azimuth between two points.
 Requirements
 both stations are occupied and the path between both stations maintain an
unobstructed view of the horizon.
 minimum of four satellites with maintainable lock; more than four satellites
are preferred.
Procedure
 Place one receiver/antenna over a point of known control and the second, a
distance of 10 to 100 m away from the other receiver.
 Collect data by both receivers for approximately 2 to 4 min.
 Swap the receivers/antennae sets at both locations
 Collect satellite data for 2 to 4 min.
 Swap back the receivers to their original locations completing one antenna
swap calibration.
 If satellite lock is lost during the procedure, the procedure must be repeated.
Greater than four satellites are preferable for lock.
REQUIRED ACCURACY WILL
DETERMINE THE FOLLOWING FIELD RECONNAISSANCE

Required accuracy will The following steps need to be

taken during the
determine the following reconnaissance operation:
 Type of GPS operation  Existing control and new
 Type of receiver stations must be visited
 Monumentation must be
 Duration of observation completed
 Type of network  Obstruction must be
adjustment required removed
 Stations must be easily
accessible
 Orientation must be noted if
obstructions exist

CONTROL STATION
In oder to establish control stations,
the following characteristics
must be kept in mind:
 Order of survey should be know
(zero order, first order,etc.)
 Easily accessible
 No physical or electromagnetic
interferences
 No reflecting surface
 Horizontal and vertical values
 Safe from vandalism or theft
 Shelter against weather
 Quiet area
RESOURCES AVAILABLE BEFORE
STARTING THE SURVEY WORK
one must also take stock of the
availability of the following:
 Personnel
 Receivers with accessories
 Availability of spare resources
and equipment
 Vehicle or helicopter
 Transportation and shipping
 Maps
 Satellite and weather forecast
status
 Layout of baselines
 Accommodation or camping
gear
 the following two main types of GPS observables are generally used:
 Pseudo range model (code measurements)
 Carrier beat phase measurement model
 The following positioning algorithms have been considered for
explanation: Point positioning
 Point positioning using code ranges
 Point positioning using carrier phase measurements
 Differential positioning
 Relative positioning
 Static relative positioning
 Kinematic relative positioning
 This lecture will develop an understanding of relationships amongst
observed quantites and unknowns in different code and carrier based
measurement techqniues. It is assumed that code pseudoranges and
carrier phases are available as obserevables which are used to get
unkonwn quanties such as receiver coordinates, clock offsets, or
ambiguity parameter.
differential corrections can be applied to the carrier phases. However, with carrier phases, a
term relative positioning is generally used. Idea is to determine the (baseline) vector
between a known point and an unknown point, where one does not solve directly for
coordinates of unknown point.

 Single Differences
Used to reduce satellite clock and orbit errors, and localized atmospheric errors.

 Double Differences
Used to reduce satellite clock and orbit errors, localized atmospheric errors, and receiver
clock errors.

Usually adopted by the final carrier phase GPS solution. Relative GPS also uses this
approach.

 Triple Differences
Difference between two double differences from measurements recorded at subsequent
epochs.

Assuming no cycle slips, or loss of lock has occurred, this eliminates the integer ambiguity,
hence used to detect for cycle slips and loss of lock.
 It is possible to smooth (process of reducing the variability in a
dataset by using sevarl algorithms) code pseudoranges by using
phase pseudoranges with the help of combination
of phase and code pseudorange observables for real-time
positioning.
 It can be derived from the previous code range data and the
change in the carrier phase between two
instants.
 Let for dual frequency measurements at epoch t1, the code
pseudoranges be RL1(t1 ), RL2(t1 ) and
the carrier phase pseudoranges be ΦL1(t1), ΦL2(t1).
 After scaling code pseudoranges to cycles by dividing them by the
corresponding carrier wavelength
and by using the two frequencies fL1, fL2
 GPS modernization includes :
 Modification of 12 Block IIR satellites implementing military (M) code on the L1 and L2
frequencies and a modern L2 Civil Signal (L2C).
 The first modified Block IIR (or IIRM) was planned for launch 2004.
 Development of the new Block IIF satellites, providing 1176.45 MHz (L5). Table 16.4 gives
charcatreistics of L1, L2, and L5 civilian signals.
 GPS Block IIF satellites scheduled for launch beginning in 2005.
 Improvements in Block IIF satellites
 Extended design life of 15 years,
 Faster processors with more memory, and
 A new civil signal on a third frequency.
 At the current GPS satellite replenishment rate, all three civil signals (L1-C/A, L2-
C/A, and L5) will be available for initial operational capability by 2010, and for full
operational capability by approximately 2013. Characteristics of modernized
signals is given in Table 16.5 and Figure 16.2.
 L2C & L5 code New L2C
 will be shared between civil and military signals and
 will have 2 BPSK modulated carrier which are in phase quadrature with each other.
 Space vehicles, IIR-M and IIF will have two additional civil ranging codes, L2CM
(civil moderate length) and L2CL (civil long).
 The following provides a brief description of the future of satellite navigation systems
(Ekta, 2004): Galileo system has increased the prospect of a multilateral world for global
navigation satellite systems.
 Main concerns regarding the future of navigation system is interoperable and compatible
coexistence of GPS and Galileo (two common center frequencies in E5a/L5 and L1).
 European proposal to overlay the Galileo Public Regulated Service (PRS) on a part of the L1
band where US plans to put its new military M-code has created considerable concern.
 This issue currently being discussed through NATO and a US-EC technical working group.
 Together, GPS and Galileo will offer unprecedented performance, in particular to local
high-precision users, including for safety-critical applications.
 Placing more satellites in orbit will increase the number visible to a user's receiver.
 Galileo must offer clear advantages to users to surpass the free service of GPS.
 Users should be free to choose which system or combination of systems best meets their
needs
 In Asia, Japan is planning to create a regional augmentation - the Quazi-Zenith Satellite
System (QZSS).
 Technical work on GPS-QZSS cooperation began in December 2002 with cooperation of
U.S.
 India and China formally pledged its participation in the European Union's Galileo.
 India is also planning to help Russia in developing GLONASS.
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