RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS the basics

 the volume of runoff passing through a flow section is called its discharge, runoff
rate, or flow rate

 the runoff reaches the design point (watershed outlet) from different origins in the
watershed at different times and rates

 thusly, the discharge at the outlet after a storm event will vary with time

 a plot of the discharge vs. time is called a hydrograph

 such hydrographs are generally bell-shaped but can go multi-peaked if rainfall

rates are variable

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS the basics

 the total runoff from a watershed consists of base flow and a direct runoff
component

 the baseflow or dry weather flow results from the direct exchange of water
between a stream and the connected groundwater aquifer

 the direct runoff component is due to the rainfall excess that flows over the ground
surface and in storm sewers to reach watershed outlet

 urban watersheds typically have negligible base flow

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS conceptual rainfall-runoff model

 let us consider a simple model to

demonstrate the construction of a
generic hydrograph (Akan 1993)
 in the figure the point B is the
lowest point in the basin (the outlet)

 indicated on the figure are flow

timelines that indicate the time
required for stormwater to reach the
basin outlet from that location
 the timelines have divided the
drainage basin into four sub areas
marked 1, 2, 3, 4, each having a
corresponding area A1, A2, A3, A4

 the average flow times from subareas 1, 2, 3, and 4 to the basin outlet are
0.25, 0.75, 1.25, and 1.75 hr respectively

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS conceptual rainfall-runoff model

 let us now assume that a certain

rainfall excess is generated at a rate
I and lasts 2.5 hours
 assume also that the flow time
from anywhere within a subarea is
equal to the average flow time of the
subarea

 that said, no runoff will reach B

before t=0.25 hr and only subareas
will contribute to the discharge at B

 this contribution will be at a rate equal to the product I*A1

 subarea 1 will continue to contribute at this rate until 0.25 hr after the rainfall
excess stops, i.e., until t=2.75 hr

 similarly, subarea 2 will contribute to runoff at B at a rate of I*A2 between 0.75

hr <= t <= 3.25 hr
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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS conceptual rainfall-runoff model

 the table below shows

contributions from all the subareas
during all the intervals considered

 the sum of contributions from each

subarea will equal the total discharge
at the design point

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS conceptual rainfall-runoff model

 a plot of the discharge values vs.

time will produce an approximate
hydrograph (shown below)
 the “blocky” appearance of the
hydrograph would be smoothened if
we had used a larger number of
smaller subareas

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS conceptual rainfall-runoff model

 with an increased number of

subareas the hydrograph would
reach the limit of the smooth dashed
curve shown in the figure

 we note that the hydrograph has a

“rising limb” between t=0 and 2 hrs

 and it has a flat portion between 2

and 2.5 hrs, and a falling limb after
the rainfall ceases at 2.5 hrs
 the flat portion represents an
equilibrium state

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS conceptual rainfall-runoff model

 the volumetric flow rate of rainfall

excess over the entire basin is equal
to I(A1+A2+A3+A4) between 2 and
2.5 hrs

 for t < 2 hrs (prior to eqm) the

discharge is less than the incoming
rainfall excess, and part of the water
is being stored over the basin

 the amount in storage will not

change during the equilibrium state

 the runoff will continue after the

effective rainfall stops at t = 2.5 hrs
due to the release of water from
storage
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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS conceptual rainfall-runoff model

 typical hydrographs would have

steeper rising limbs and shallower,
longer falling limbs

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS defining time of concentration

 time of concentration is frequently

defined as the time required for
stormwater to flow from the
hydrologically most remote point in
the basin to the basin outlet
 similarly we can define it as the
time necessary for all parts of the
basin to be contributing
simultaneously

 inspection of the hydrograph to

the left reveals that tc = 2 hrs for our
conceptual example
 the hydrograph also illustrates that
the flow will reach eqm at a time
equal to the time of concentration
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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS defining time of concentration

 the runoff rate will remain constant

after the time of concentration until
after the rainfall excess ceases (or
intensity drops off)

 we can say that the max possible

discharge under a constant rate of
effective rainfall is reached if the
effective rainfall duration is equal to
the time of concentration of the basin

 the above statements serve as the

principal construct of the popular
rational method of overland flow
quantification

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

 the time of concentration represents the hydrologic response time of a

watershed

 t o c is a variable critical to many desktop hydrologic design methods like

the rational method

 we compute the t o c using the longest temporal flow path within the watershed,
we sometimes refer to this flow path as the hydraulic length of the watershed

 this longest flow path is not always obvious  we may be required to compute
several possible paths before we can identify the largest travel time as the longest
path

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

 different types of flow like overland and channel flows can occur along a flow
path, when this occurs, we assess travel times for each flow segment separately
then sum them up to acquire the t o c

 a multitude of t o c computation techniques are available to us  it is

important to appreciate that these equations are largely empirical and site-
specific, such that they could produce significantly different results when
applied to the same problem

 theoretically and physically based quantification methods do exist however, and

they are referred to as kinematic t o c formulae

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

scs time of concentration method

 the soil conservation service (SCS) method is widely used in engineering

practice

 the premise of the method is a presumption that the water moves through
the watershed as sheet flow, shallow concentrated flow, channel flow, or
some combination of each

 the t o c is the sum of the travel times computed separately for the consecutive
flow segments along the longest flow path

 sheet flow occurs on the land surface, for sheet flow the travel time, Tf is
calculated via

Tf = Cf (nL)0.8 / P20.5So0.4 - [1]

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

scs time of concentration method

Tf = Cf (nL)0.8 / P20.5So0.4 - [1]

where:

n = effective Manning roughness factor (Table 4.2)

L = flow length
P2 = 2 year, 24-hr rainfall

So = land slope

 NB: units to be aware of in [1], Tf is in hours, L is in ft, P2 is in inches, and

Cf=0.007 for US units / in SI L is in meters, P2 in centimeters, and Cf=0.029

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

scs time of concentration method

 after some distance (SCS suggests 300 ft), sheet flow usually becomes a
shallow concentrated flow

 the travel time for shallow concentrated flow is determined as

Tf = L / 3600V - [2]

where:
Tf = travel time (hrs)
L = flow length (ft or m)
V = average flow velocity (fps or m/s)

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

scs time of concentration method

 the Manning equation is used to determine the average flow velocity

V = kRh2/3So1/2 / n - [2]

where:
k = 1.0 m1/3/s = 1.49 ft1/3/s
Rh = A / P = hydraulic radius
A = cross-sectional flow area (ft2 or m2)

P = wetted perimeter (ft or m)

So = slope (ft/ft or m/m)

n = Manning roughness factor

 we note here that the SCS procedure assumes Rh=0.04 ft and n=0.05 for
shallow unpaved areas and Rh=0.2 ft and n=0.025 for shallow paved areas
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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

scs time of concentration method

 if we sub these values into [2] we yield

V = w3So1/2 - [3]

where:
w = 16.1 fps = 4.91 m/s unpaved
w = 20.3 fps = 6.19 m/s paved

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

scs time of concentration method

 channel flow is assumed to begin where surveyed cross sections have been
obtained, where channels are visible on aerial photographs
 equations [2] and [3] are used to determine the average velocity and the travel
time for channel flow, in [2] the flow area, A, and the wetted perimeter, P are
evaluated at bank full flow conditions

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

kirpich method of t o c

 the Kirpich formula was originally developed from the SCS data for rural
basins in Tennessee with well-defined channels and steep slopes
 the Kirpich formula is utilized to estimate both overland and channel flow times
separately
 if more than one flow segment is present along the flow path, the watershed
time of concentration is set equal to the sum of the values computed for the
individual segments

 the Kirpich expression (1982):

Tc = CKL0.77/S0.385 - [4]

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 RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS computing time of concentration

kirpich method of t o c
 the Kirpich expression (1940):

Tc = CKL0.77/S0.385 - [4]

where:
Tc is in minutes, L is in ft (m), CK=0.0078 min/ft0.77 = 0.0195 min/m0.77

 for overland flow on concrete and asphalt surfaces, Tc is multiplied by 0.4, and
for concrete channels by 0.2

 for overland flow on bare soil or road side ditches no correction is needed

 for overland flow on grass surfaces we multiply Tc by 2 (Kibler 1982)

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 ASSIGNMENT 2

ASSIGNED PROBLEMS

CALCULATION OF RUNOFF RATES FROM URBAN WATERSHEDS (Chapter 5)

1, 2, 3, 4, 11, 13, 26, 27, 28

SOURCE

Urban Hydrology, Hydraulics, and Stormwater Quality by Akan and Houghtalen ©2003

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