ENGINEERING

MATERIALS
• Materials that are used as raw material for any sort of
construction or manufacturing in an organized way of
engineering application are known as Engineering
Materials.
• Everything we use in our daily life can be tailored to
use for specific cases. This can be done efficiently if
we know the property of each material beforehand.
Hence, materials have been extensively tested for
their properties and classified into broad groups. From
this grouping one can know about the gross property
of any group of material.
Classification of Engineering Materials
 Properties of Engineering Materials
• PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
• Specific Gravity-defined as the weight of a given volume of a material as compared to the wt of an
given volume of water it is measured at atemperature of 60 deg F(15.5 deg C)

• Specific Heat-heat required to raise the temperature of unit wt of material by one degree.

• Fusibility & Fluidity-the property of a material where it tends to melt and flows when heat is applied.

• Weldability-ability of uniting two pieces of metal by applying pressure or heat or both.

• Elasticity-property due to which a metal regains its original dimension on removal of load.

• Plasticity-beyon elastic limit the material is unable to regain its original shape and retains to its
moulded shape.this property is called plasticity.

• Porosity-materials in their plastic or molten state contain some dissolved gasses which are evaporated
once they are setformin gas holes and pores.this property is know as porosity.
• MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
• Strength-ability of a material to reisit the application of load without rupture.
• Hardness-ability of a material to resist penetration or scratching.
• Hardenability-ability of a material to be hardened by heat treat ment.
• Toughness-property of a material where it can absorb energy before actual fracture.
• Brittleness-ability oa material to fracture on recieving shock or blow
• Malleability-ability oa material to be hammered into thin sheets.
• Ductility-ability of a material to be drawn into wires.
• Creep & Slip-ability of a material to flow like a viscous liquid under the application of stress and
temperature is called creep.
• Fatigue- is the weakening of a material caused by repeatedly applied loads.
• Resilience-property of a material to absorb energy within elastic range.this required for springing action.
• THERMAL PROPERTIES
Conductivity-ability of a material to conduct heat from a hot end to cold
end. silver and copper are good conductors of heat.

• ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES-
Conductivity-ability of a material to conduct electricity from one end to
another.

• MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
Ability of material to act as a magnet and attract materials like
iron,steel,nickel etc..
 Metals:
• Metals are usually characterized by a well defined crystal structure.
• They are bonded together by means of metallic bonds which maintain an
electron cloud.
• This electron cloud is crucial for the high electrical and thermal conductivity
characteristic to metals.
• Some properties of metals are Luster, Hardness, Thermal and electrical
conductivity, Malleability
Ferrous Materials - Steels
•Steels - alloys of iron-carbon. May contain other alloying elements.
•Several grades are available.
•Low Alloy (<10 wt%)
Steels
–Low Carbon (<0.25 wt% C)
–Medium Carbon (0.25 to 0.60 wt%)
Low High
–High Carbon (0.6 to 1.4 wt%) alloy
•High Alloy alloy
–Stainless Steel (> 11 wt% Cr) Low
–Tool Steel Carbon Stainless

Medium
Carbon Tool

High
Carbon
 Low Carbon Steel
• Plain carbon steels - very low content of alloying elements and small
amounts of Mn.
• Most abundant grade of steel is low carbon steel - greatest quantity
produced; least expensive.
• Not responsive to heat treatment; cold working needed to improve the
strength.
• Good Weldability and machinability
• High Strength, Low Alloy (HSLA) steels - alloying elements (like Cu, V, Ni and
Mo) up to 10 wt %; have higher strengths and may be heat treated.
 Medium Carbon Steel

• Carbon content in the range of 0.3 – 0.6 %.

• Can be heat treated - austenitizing, quenching and then tempering.
• Most often used in tempered condition – tempered martensite
• Medium carbon steels have low hardenability
• Addition of Cr, Ni, Mo improves the heat treating capacity
• Heat treated alloys are stronger but have lower ductility
• Typical applications – Railway wheels and tracks, gears, crankshafts.
 High Carbon Steel

• High carbon steels – Carbon content 0.6 – 1.4 % ØHigh C content provides
high hardness and strength. Hardest and least ductile.
• Used in hardened and tempered condition
• Strong carbide formers like Cr, V, W are added as alloying elements to from
carbides of these metals.
• Used as tool and die steels owing to the high hardness and wear resistance
property
Stainless steel
• Stainless steels - A group of steels that contain at least 11% Cr. Exhibits
extraordinary corrosion resistance due to formation of a very thin layer of
Cr2O3 on the surface.
 Cast Irons
• Carbon 2.1- 4.5 wt% and Si (normally 1-3 wt%).
• Lower melting point (about 300 °C lower than pure iron) due to presence
of eutectic point at 1153 °C and 4.2 wt% C. ØLow shrinkage and good
fluidity and casting ability.
• Types of cast iron: grey, white, nodular, malleable and compacted
graphite.
Grey Cast Iron
• Grey cast iron contains graphite in the form of flakes. Named after its
grey fractured surface. C:3.0 – 4.0 wt%, Si: 1.0 – 3.0 %
• Weak & brittle in tension (the graphite flake tips act as stress
concentration sites).Stronger in compression, Excellent damping
capacity, wear resistance.
• Microstructure modification by varying silicon content and cooling rate
 Applications of Cast iron

• Cast irons are used in wide variety of application owing to the properties like
good fluidity, ease of casting, low shrinkage, excellent machinability, wear
resistance and damping capacity.
• Car parts – cylinder heads, blocks and gearbox cases.
• Pipes, lids (manhole lids)
• Foundation for big machines (good damping property) §Bridges, buildings
• Cook wares – Excellent heat retention
 Nonferrous Metals
Copper
• Copper is one of the earliest metals discovered by man.
• The boilers on early steamboats were made from copper.
• The copper tubing used in water plumbing in Pyramids was found in
serviceable condition after more than 5,000 years.
• Cu is a ductile metal. Pure Cu is soft and malleable, difficult to machine.
• Very high electrical conductivity – second only to silver.
• Copper is refined to high purity for many electrical applications.
• Excellent thermal conductivity – Copper cookware most highly regarded –
fast and uniform heating.
• Electrical and construction industries are the largest users of Cu.
 Copper Alloys
Family of Cu Alloys
Alloy Alloying element Applications

Brass Zinc (Zn) musical instruments

Phosphor bronze Tin (Sn) ancient Chinese cast artifacts, skateboard

ball bearings, surgical and dental
instruments.
Aluminium bronzes Aluminium (Al)

Silicon bronzes Silicon (Si)

Copper nickel, nickel silvers Nickel (Ni) springs, load cells and other parts
subjected to repeated loading. Low-
current contacts for batteries and
electrical connectors
 Aluminum
• Aluminum is a light metal , is easily machinable , has wide variety of surface
finishes; good electrical and thermal conductivities; highly reflective to heat and
light.
• Versatile metal - can be cast, rolled, stamped, drawn, spun, roll-formed,
hammered, extruded and forged into many shapes.
• Aluminum can be riveted, welded, brazed, or resin bonded. ØCorrosion resistant
- no protective coating needed, however it is often anodized to improve surface
finish, appearance.
• Al and its alloys - high strength-to-weight ratio (high specific strength) owing to
low density.
• Such materials are widely used in aerospace and automotive applications where
weight savings are needed for better fuel efficiency and performance.
• Al-Li alloys are lightest among all Al alloys and find wide applications in the
aerospace industry.
 Ceramics

Refractory Advanced
Abrasives Glass
Materials Ceramics
 • Refractory Materials
• Refractory - retains its strength at high temperatures > 500°C.
• Must be chemically and physically stable at high temperatures. Need to be
resistant to thermal shock, should be chemically inert, and have specific
ranges of thermal conductivity and thermal expansion.
• Are used in linings for furnaces, kilns, incinerators, crucibles and reactors.
• Aluminium oxide (alumina), silicon oxide (silica), calcium oxide (lime)
magnesium oxide (magnesia) and fireclays are used to manufacture
refractory materials.
• Zirconia - extremely high temperatures.
• SiC and Carbon – also used in some very severe temperature conditions, but
cannot be used in oxygen environment, as they will oxidize and burn.
 Abrasive Ceramics

• Abrasives are used in cutting and grinding tools.

• Diamonds - natural and synthetic, are used as abrasives, though relatively
expensive. Industrial diamonds are hard and thermally conductive.
Diamonds unsuitable as gemstone are used as industrial diamond
• Common abrasives – SiC, WC, Al2O3 (corundum) and silica sand.
• Either bonded to a grinding wheel or made into a powder and used with a
cloth or paper.
 Glass
• Glass - inorganic, non-crystalline (amorphous) material.
• Range - soda-lime silicate glass for soda bottles to the extremely high purity silica glass for optical
fibers.
• Widely used for windows, bottles, glasses for drinking, transfer piping and receptacles for highly
corrosive liquids, optical glasses, windows for nuclear applications.
• The main constituent of glass is silica (SiO2). The most common form of silica used in glass is sand.
• Sand fusion temp to produce glass - 1700 °C. Adding other chemicals to sand can considerably
reduce the fusion temperature.
• Key Properties of Glass
• • Glass-ceramic materials should have:
• Relatively high mechanical strengths
• Low coefficients of thermal expansion
• Relatively high temperature capabilities
• Good dielectric properties
• Good biological compatibility
• Thermal shock resistance
 Polymers
• Polymers – Chain of H-C molecules. Each repeat unit of H-C is a monomer
e.g. ethylene (C2H4), Polyethylene – (–CH2 – CH2)n
• Polymers: Thermosets – Soften when heated and harden on cooling –
totally reversible. Thermoplasts – Do not soften on heating
• Plastics – moldable into many shape and have sufficient structural rigidity.
Are one of the most commonly used class of materials.
• Are used in clothing, housing, automobiles, aircraft, packaging,
electronics, signs, recreation items, and medical implants.
• Natural plastics – hellac, rubber, asphalt, and cellulose.
 Composites
• Material made from two or more constituent materials with
significantly different physical or chemical properties that, when
combined, produce a material with characteristics different from the
individual components. The individual components remain separate
and distinct within the finished structure, differentiating composites
from mixtures and solid solution
• Typical engineered composite materials include:
• Reinforced concrete and masonry
• Composite wood such as plywood
• Reinforced plastics, such as fibre-reinforced polymer or fiberglass
• Ceramic matrix composites (composite ceramic and metal matrices)
• Metal matrix composites
 Concrete
• Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse
aggregate bonded together with a fluid cement (cement paste) that
hardens over time.
• Fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP) (also called fibre-reinforced polymer, or fiber-
reinforced plastic) is a composite material made of a polymer matrix
reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually glass (in fibreglass), carbon (in
carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer), aramid, or basalt. Rarely, other fibres such
as paper, wood, or asbestos have been used. The polymer is usually an
epoxy, vinylester, or polyester thermosetting plastic, though phenol
formaldehyde resins are still in use.
• A sandwich-structured composite is a special class of composite materials
that is fabricated by attaching two thin but stiff skins to a lightweight but thick
core. The core material is normally low strength material, but its higher
thickness provides the sandwich composite with high bending stiffness with
overall low density.
• Smart materials, called also intelligent or responsive
materials are designed materials that have one or more
properties that can be significantly changed in a controlled
fashion by external stimuli, such as stress, temperature,
moisture, pH, electric or magnetic fields, light, or chemical
compounds. Smart Materials are the basis of many
applications, including sensors and actuators, or artificial
muscles, particularly as electrically activated polymers
(EAP's).
Terms used to describe smart materials include shape
memory material (SMM) and shape memory technology
(SMT).
• Types
• There are a number of types of smart material, of which are already common. Some examples are
as following:
• Piezoelectric materials are materials that produce a voltage when stress is applied. Since this
effect also applies in the reverse manner, a voltage across the sample will produce stress
withinsample. Suitably designed structures made from these materials can therefore be made
that bend, expand or contract when a voltage is applied.
• Shape-memory alloys and shape-memory polymers are materials in which large deformation can
be induced and recovered through temperature changes or stress changes (pseudoelasticity). The
shape memory effect results due to respectively martensitic phase change and induced elasticity
at higher temperatures.
• Photovoltaic materials or optoelectronics convert light to electrical current.
• electroactive polymers (EAP's) change their volume by voltage or electric fields
• Magnetostrictive materials exhibit change in shape under the influence of magnetic field and also
exhibit change in their magnetization under the influence of mechanical stress.
• Magnetic shape memory alloys are materials that change their shape in response to a significant
change in the magnetic field.
• pH-sensitive polymers are materials that change in volume when the pH of the
surrounding medium changes.
• Temperature-responsive polymers are materials which undergo changes upon
temperature.
• Chromogenic systems change colour in response to electrical, optical or thermal
changes. These include electrochromic materials, which change their colour or
opacity on the application of a voltage (e.g., liquid crystal displays),
thermochromic materials change in colour depending on their temperature, and
photochromic materials, which change colour in response to light—for example,
light sensitive sunglasses that darken when exposed to bright sunlight.
• Photomechanical materials change shape under exposure to light.
• Polycaprolactone (polymorph) can be molded by immersion in hot water.
• Self-healing materials have the intrinsic ability to repair damage due to normal
usage, thus expanding the material's lifetime.