CHEMISTRY

Composition of Matter
 Matter - Everything in
universe is composed of
matter
 Matter is anything that
occupies space or has
mass
 Mass – quantity of
matter an object has
 Weight – pull of
gravity on an object
Elements
 Pure substances that cannot be broken
down chemically into simpler kinds of
matter
 More than 100 elements (92 naturally
occurring)
 90% of the mass of an
organism is composed of 4
elements (oxygen, carbon,
hydrogen and nitrogen)
 Each element unique
chemical symbol
 Consists of 1-2 letters
 First letter is always
capitalized
Atoms
 The simplest particle of an
element that retains all the
properties of that element
 Properties of atoms
determine the structure
and properties of the
matter they compose
 Our understanding of the
structure of atoms based
on scientific models, not
observation
The Nucleus
 Central core
 Consists of positive
charged protons and
neutral neutrons
 Positively charged
 Contains most of the
mass of the atom
The Protons
 All atoms of a given element have the
same number of protons
 Number of protons called the atomic
number
 Number of protons balanced by an equal
number of negatively charged electrons
The Neutrons
 The number varies slightly among atoms of
the same element
 Different numbers of neutrons produce
isotopes of the same element
Atomic Mass
 Protons & neutrons are found in the
nucleus of an atom
 Protons and neutrons each have a
mass of 1 amu (atomic mass unit)
 The atomic mass of an atom is found
by adding the number of protons &
neutrons in an atom
The Electrons
 Negatively charged high energy particles
with little or no mass
 Travel at very high speeds at various
distances (energy levels) from the nucleus
 Electrons in the same energy level are
approximately the same distance from
the nucleus
 Outer energy levels have more energy
than inner levels
 Each level holds only a certain number
of electrons
Energy Levels
 Energy levels are also known as
electron shells or electron clouds.
 Atoms have 7 electron shells.
 The first shell can only hold 2
electrons
 Shells 2-7 can hold 8 electrons
(octet rule)
Periodic Table
 Elements are arranged by their
atomic number on the Periodic Table
 The horizontal rows are called
Periods & tell the number of energy
levels
 Vertical groups are called Families &
tell the outermost number of
electrons
Compounds
 Most
elements do
not exist by
themselves
 Readily
combine with
other
elements in a
predictable
fashion
 A compound is a pure
substance made up of
atoms of two or more
elements
 The proportion of
atoms are always fixed
 Chemical formula shows
the kind and proportion of
atoms of each element
that occurs in a particular
compound
 Molecules are the
simplest part of a
substance that
retains all of the
properties of the
substance and
exists in a free
state
 Some molecules
are large and
complex
 Chemical Formulas
 Subscript after a symbol tell the number
of atoms of each element
 H20 has 2 atoms of hydrogen & 1 atom of
oxygen
 Coefficients before a formula tell the
number of molecules
 3O2 represents 3 molecules of oxygen or
(3x2) or 6 atoms of oxygen
 The tendency of
elements to combine and
form compounds depends
on the number and
arrangement of
electrons in their
outermost energy level
 Atoms are most stable
when their outer most
energy level is filled
 Most atoms are not stable
in their natural state
 Tend to react (combine)
with other atoms in order
to become more stable
(undergo chemical
reactions)
 In chemical reactions
bonds are broken; atoms
rearranged and new
chemical bonds are
formed that store energy
Covalent Bonds
 Formed when two atoms share one or more
pairs of electrons
Ionic Bonds
 Some atoms become stable by losing or
gaining electrons
 Atoms that lose electrons are called
positive ions
 Atoms that gain electrons are called
negative ions
 Because positive and negative electrical
charges attract each other ionic bonds
form
Homework
 Read pages 36-39
 Answer Assessment # 1-4, 6
Chemical Reactions and
Enzymes
Energy and Matter
 Energy
 The ability to do work or cause
change
 Occurs in various forms
 Can be converted to another form
 Forms important to biological
systems are chemical, thermal,
electrical and mechanical energy
 Free energy is the energy in a
system that is available for work
States of Matter
 Atoms are in constant motion
 The rate at which atoms or molecules in a
substance move determines its state
States of Matter
 Solid
 Molecules are tightly linked.
 Little energy

 Liquid
 Molecules are not as
tightly linked
 Medium amount of energy
 States of Matter
Gas
Molecules have little or no
attraction to each other
Fill the volume of the occupied
container
Move most rapidly

 To cause a substance to
change state, thermal energy
(heat) must be added to or
removed from a substance
Energy and Chemical Reactions
 Living things
undergo
thousands of
chemical
reactions as part
of the life
process
 Energy and Chemical Reactions
 Many are very complex
involving multistep sequences
called biochemical pathways
 Chemical equations
represent chemical reactions
 Reactants are shown on
the left side of the
equation
 Products are shown on
the right side
 A+B C+D
 Energy Transfer
 Much of the energy
organisms need is
provided by sugar
(food)
 Undergoes a series of
chemical reactions in
which energy is
released (cell
respiration)
 The net release of
free energy is called
an exothermic reaction
 Energy Transfer Mix Barium
hydroxide and
aluminum
 Reactions that salt, and the
products
involve a net dissolve in
absorption of free water of
hydration.
energy are called This is VERY
endothermic COLD!
reactions
 Photosynthesis is
an example
 Energy Transfer
 Most chemical reactions require energy to begin
 The amount of energy needed to start the
reaction is called activation energy
 Catalysts
 Certain chemical
substances
(catalysts) reduce
the amount of
activation energy
required
 Biological
catalysts are
called enzymes
Catalysts
 Enzymes are an important class of
catalysts in living organisms
 Mostly protein
 Thousands of different kinds
 Each specific for a different
chemical reaction
 Enzyme Structure
 Enzymes work on
substances called
substrates
 Substrates must fit into
a place on an enzyme
called the active site
 Enzymes are reusable!
Solutions
Solutions
 A solution is a
mixture in
which 2 or
more
substances are
uniformly
distributed in
another
substance
 Solutions
 Solute is the
substance dissolved
in the solution
 Particles may be
ions, atoms, or
molecules
 Solvent is the
substance in which
the solute is
dissolved
 Water is the
universal solvent
Acids and Bases
 One of the most important aspects of a
living system is the degree of acidity or
alkalinity
 pH Scale
 logarithmic scale
for comparing the
relative
concentrations of
hydronium ions and
hydroxide ions in a  Each pH is 10X
solution stronger than next
 ranges from 0 to
 e.g. ph 1 is 10 times
14
stronger than ph 2
Acids
 Compounds that donate a proton (H+) when
dissolved in a solution.
 the lower the pH the stronger the acid
 0-6 on the pH scale
 HCl  H+ + Cl-
Bases
 Compounds that accepts a proton (H+)
when dissolved in a solution.
 the higher the pH the stronger the base
 8-14 on the pH scale
 NaOH  Na+ + OH-
Acids and Bases
 pH 7.0 is neutral
Buffers
 Control of pH is very
important
 Most enzymes function
only within a very narrow
pH
 Control is accomplished
with buffers made by the
body
 Buffers keep a neutral
pH (pH 7)
 Buffers neutralize
small amounts of
either an acid or
base added to a
solution
 Complex buffering
systems maintain the
pH values of your
body’s many fluids at
normal and safe
levels