MODULE 2

Meaning and discourse in English

LEXICAL RELATIONS

Lesson 2

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PARADIGMATIC &
SYNTAGMATIC RELATIONS

 Horizontal relationships are syntagmatic

 Vertical relationships are paradigmatic

 So semantic relationships are

paradigmatic

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 Lexical relations - Hyponymy
Flower

daffodil tulip pansy rose

Sheep

ram ewe lamb

 In this model one lexeme can substitute another: “X is

a kind of Y”.
 This relation is called HYPONYMY
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 Do these pairs mean the
same thing?
enough insane rancid autumn
sufficient mad rotten fall

regal deep fraternal sodium

kingly profound brotherly chloride

freedom endless purchase

liberty everlasting buy

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Lexical relations -
SYNONYMY
 Synonyms are lexemes which have the same
meaning
 English has a lot of synonyms because its
vocabulary comes from different sources
(Anglo-Saxon, Latin, Greek, French)
 But is it possible to have true synonyms, i.e.
words with exactly the same meaning?

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Distinguishing meanings
 Some words only occur in particular contexts
(e.g. dialect words, autumn-fall)
 Some words only occur in certain styles (salt
and sodium chloride)
 Some words only occur in certain collocations
(deep water but not profound water)
 Some words are emotionally stronger (e.g.
freedom, not liberty)
 Some words overlap in meaning but are not
identical (e.g. govern and direct)
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Why is synonymy important
for language students?
 Because students often need to know
“why do you say “x and not y” when x
and y are very similar.

 You will often find the answers in

dictionaries or in concordances (see
lecsson 3 - collocation)

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Are these pairs the same kind
of opposite?
alive big buy clumsy
dead little sell dexterous

dry first happy husband

wet last sad wife

large married over hot

small single under cold

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Lexical relations - Antonymy
 Gradable antonyms - these are capable of
comparison (e.g. wetter, very wet)
 Complementary (either-or) antonyms - if one
applies the other does not (e.g. alive/dead)
 Converse antonyms - these are mutually
dependent; you cannot have one without the
other (e.g. wife/husband)

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How do we know antonyms?
 By intuition.

The antonym of little is big and the

antonym of large is small. Large is not
the antonym of little even though they
are conceptual opposites.

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 Lexical relations - polysemy
 Eye
“Eye” is classified as one word Quic k Ti me™ e un
dec om pres s ore T IFF (Non c ompres s o)

with two different meanings. s ono nec es s ari per vi s ual izz are ques t'im magi ne.

This happens when the

difference in meaning is
predictable or regular.
There is a core meaning
from which the other meanings Quick Time™e u n

(“eye” of a needle, “eye” of a

de compr ess ore T IF F (Non c ompr ess o)
so no nec essa ri per v is ualizza re qu est'imma gine. QuickTi me™ e un
decom pressore T IFF (Non compresso)
sono necessari per vi sual izzare quest'im magi ne.

tornado) can be predicted.

Metaphors are often
polysemous 11
 Lexical relations -homonymy
 Bank

The word “bank” in “river bank” QuickTi me™ e un

decompressore TIFF (N on compresso)
sono necessari per visual izzar e q uest' immag i ne.

and “Lloyd’s bank” are

classified as two different
words with separate meanings
even though they have the
same form.

This is because the meaning QuickTi me™ e un

decom pressore T IFF (Non compresso)
sono necessari per vi sual izzare quest'im magi ne.

of one form is not predictable

from the meaning of another.
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Implications for students
 Leaning groups of hyponyms is easier for
students than learning words separately

 It is important to know how to distinguish the

meaning of synonyms especially at advanced
levels

 Polysemous words are easier for students to

understand than homonyms. Polysemous
and metaphorical meanings can be taught
with “core” meanings. 13
Polysemy or Homonymy

 Mai - you’ve got mail, chain mail

 Pupil - student, part of the eye
 Ear - ear of corn,
 Face - face of a clock
 Tongue - tongue of a shoe
 Key - answer key, key to the door
 Charge - electrical charge, price, military
charge

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A word is easier to understand
when …
 It is a cognate
 The morphology is recognised
 The context is understood (so you can make
a good guess at the meaning)

SO … you should always try to guess the

meaning of a word when these factors are
present
Only use a dictionary when none of these
factors are present, i.e. when you have NO
CHANCE of understanding it! 15