AP10006 Physics II

Light & Optics, Electricity & Magnetism

Contents for Magnetism

1. Magnetic fields
2. Source of the Magnetic Field
3. Faraday’s Law
4. Inductance
5. Alternating-Current circuits

2 Section Introduction
Chapter 29
Magnetic Fields
Topics being covered in Chapter 29 – Magnetic Fields

• Magnetic fields
• Motion of a charged particle in a uniform magnetic field
• Applications involving charged particles moving in a magnetic field
• Magnetic force acting on a current-carrying conductor
• The Hall effect

4 Introduction
Magnetism
Magnetism is a class of physical phenomena associated with magnetic forces
among permanent magnets and moving charges (i.e., currents).
Permanent magnets are usually made of a type of materials (called ferromagnetic
materials) and they can attract and repel each others by magnetic forces.
For example, magnetite (a mineral) can attract iron nails.

A permanent magnet can interact with moving charges too.

In 1819, it was found that an electric current deflected a
compass needle.

In the 1820’s, Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry studied

the connections between electricity and magnetism. It was
concluded that a changing magnetic field creates an
electric field; James Clerk Maxwell further suggested that
a changing electric field produces a magnetic field.

5 Introduction
Magnetic Poles
Every magnet has two poles, called north (N) and south (S) poles.
 Poles exert forces on one another, similar to the way electric charges exert
forces on each other
 Like poles repel each other & unlike poles attract each other.
Earth itself is a magnet. If a bar magnet is suspended on the Earth so that it can
move freely, it will rotate until it align with the Earth’s magnetic field.
 The magnetic north pole points toward the Earth’s north geographic pole.
 This means the Earth’s north geographic pole is a magnetic south pole.
 Similarly, the Earth’s south geographic pole is a magnetic north pole.
A single magnetic pole has never been isolated.
 In other words, magnetic poles are always found in pairs.
 All attempts so far to detect an isolated magnetic pole has been unsuccessful.

6 Introduction
 Magnetic Fields and Magnetic Field Lines, Bar Magnet Example
compass Magnetic field lines

Magnet

The compass (as a test
magnet) can be used to
trace the field lines, which
are outside the (source)
magnet, pointing from the
North pole to the South
pole.
Iron filings are used Magnetic field Magnetic field
to show the pattern pattern between pattern between like-
of the magnetic field opposite-poles poles (N-N) of two
(N-S) of two bar bar magnets.
lines. The direction of
magnets. Compare to the
the field is the electric field
direction a north pole produced by like
would point. charges.

7 Section 29.1
Earth’s Magnetic Poles and Fields
More proper terminology would be that a magnet has “north-seeking” (N) and
“south-seeking” (S) poles.
The north-seeking pole points to the north geographic pole.
 This would correspond to the Earth’s south magnetic pole.
The south-seeking pole points to
the south geographic pole.
 This would correspond to the
Earth’s north magnetic pole.
However, the magnetic axis of the earth
is not the same as the axis of rotation.
The magnetic axis is also change with time.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MYbelcvY34o

8 Section 29.1
Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge
The magnetic force 𝐅ԦB will be exerted on a charged particle moving with a velocity, 𝐯.
 Assume (for now) there are no gravitational or electric fields present.

The magnetic field 𝐁 is

defined in this equation:

  
FB  qv  B
𝑞>0 𝑞<0

Cross product Positive charge Negative charge

  
The properties
 can be summarized in a vector equation: FB  qv  B ,

where FB is the
 magnetic force, q is the charge, v is the velocity of the moving
charge and B is the magnetic field.
9 Section 29.1
Magnetic Force on a Moving Charge, Some properties
When the particle’s velocity vector makes any
non-zero angle 𝜃 with the field, the force acts in
a direction perpendicular to the plane formed by
the velocity and the field.

𝐅ԦB = 𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁
⇒ 𝐅ԦB ⊥ 𝐯 and 𝐅ԦB ⊥ 𝐁

The magnitude of the magnetic force is proportional to sin 𝜃, where 𝜃 is the angle
the particle’s velocity makes with the direction of the magnetic field.

𝐅Ԧ𝐵 = 𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵sin𝜃 ∝ sin𝜃

The magnetic force acting on the particle is zero when a charged particle moves
parallel to the magnetic field vector
• because sin 𝜃 = 0 when 𝜃 = 0° or 180°
The magnetic force is a maximum when the field and velocity are perpendicular.
• because sin 𝜃 = 1 when 𝜃 = 90°
10 Section 29.1
Direction: Right-Hand Rule #1 and Rule #2

= 𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁

( 𝐯 cross 𝐁 gives direction of 𝐅Ԧ𝐵 )

#1 Right-hand rule for the cross product: #2 Alternative to Rule #1: the force on a
your thumb is in the direction of the force positive charge extends outward from the
if q is positive and vice versa. palm and vice versa.

11 Section 29.1
Differences Between Electric and Magnetic Fields
•Direction of force
 The electric force acts along the direction of the electric field.
 The magnetic force acts perpendicular to the magnetic field.
•Motion
 The electric force acts on a charged particle regardless of whether the
particle is moving.
 The magnetic force acts on a charged particle only when the particle is in
motion.
•Work
 The electric force does work in displacing a charged particle.
 The magnetic force associated with a steady magnetic field does no work
when a particle is displaced.
 This is because the force is perpendicular to the displacement of its point of
application.
12 Section 29.1
Units of Magnetic Field, Notation Notes

The SI unit of magnetic field is the tesla (T): 1 T = 1 N/C∙m/s = 1 N/A∙m (C/s = A)
A non-SI commonly used unit is a gauss (G): 1 T = 104 G.

When vectors are perpendicular to

the page, dots and crosses are
used.
 The dots represent the arrows
coming out of the page.
 The crosses represent the
arrows going into the page.
The same notation applies to other
vectors.
out in
13 Section 29.1
Charged Particle in a Magnetic Field
Consider a particle moving in an external
magnetic field with its velocity perpendicular to
the field.
The force is always directed toward the center
of the circular path.
The magnetic force causes a centripetal
acceleration, changing the direction of the
velocity of the particle.
Use the particle under a net force and a
particle in uniform circular motion models.
Equating the magnetic and centripetal forces:
𝑚𝑣 2 𝑚𝑣
𝐹𝐵 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 = ⇒𝑟=
𝑟 𝑞𝐵
𝑚𝑣
The radius 𝑟 = 𝑞𝐵
is proportional to the linear
momentum of the particle and inversely
proportional to the magnetic field.
14 Section 29.2 Active Figure 29.8
More About Motion of Charged Particle
𝑣 𝑞𝐵
•The angular speed of the particle is 𝜔 = =
𝑟 𝑚
 The angular speed, ω, is also referred to as the
cyclotron frequency.
2𝜋𝑟 2𝜋 2𝜋𝑚
•The period of the motion is 𝑇 = = =
𝑣 𝜔 𝑞𝐵

Motion of a Particle, General

If a charged particle moves in a magnetic
field at some arbitrary angle with respect to
the field, its path is a helix because of the
existence of an x-component velocity.
Same equations apply, with v replaced by the
projected velocity in the yz-plane

𝑣⊥ = 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2
15 Section 29.2
Bending of an Electron Beam
Electrons are accelerated from rest
through a potential difference.
Path of electron
The electrons then enter a uniform
magnetic field that is perpendicular to
the velocity vector.
The electrons travel in a curved path.
Conservation of energy will give v.
The lighting is caused by excitation of
gas atoms in a bulb.
Note that the electron is losing energy B
due to the excitation of gas atoms and
thus the radius of path is getting smaller
as it goes.

16 Section 29.2
Charged Particles Moving in Electric and Magnetic Fields

In many applications, charged particles will move in the presence of both

magnetic and electric fields.
In that case, the total force is the sum of the forces due to the individual fields.

 The total force is called the Lorentz force.

In general:

𝐅Ԧ = 𝑞𝐄 + 𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁
Example:

17 Section 29.3
Example 1: Velocity Selector

Used when all the particles need to move with the

same velocity.
A uniform electric field is perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field.
When the force due to the electric field is equal
but opposite to the force due to the magnetic
field, the particle moves in a straight line.
𝐸
This occurs for velocities of value: 𝑣=
𝐵
Only those particles with the given speed will pass
through the two fields without deflection.
The magnetic force exerted on particles moving at a
speed greater than this is stronger than the electric
force and the particles will be deflected to the left.
Those moving more slowly will be deflected to the right.

18 Section 29.3
Example 2: Mass Spectrometer
A mass spectrometer separates ions according to
their mass-to-charge ratio.
In one design, a beam of ions passes through a
velocity selector and enters a second magnetic field.

After entering the second magnetic field ( B 0,in), the
ions move in a semicircle of radius r before striking a
detector at P.
If the ions are positively charged, they deflect to the
left and vice versa.

The mass to charge (m/q) ratio can be determined

by measuring the radius of curvature and knowing
the magnetic and electric field magnitudes.
m rB0 rB0 B mv E
  (r  & v )
q v E qB0 B Active Figure 29.14

19 Section 29.3
Example 3: Thomson’s e/m Experiment
To find the charge-to-mass ratio,
electrons are accelerated from
the cathode.
They are deflected by electric
and magnetic fields.
The beam of electrons strikes a
fluorescent screen.
The magnitudes of the two fields
are first adjusted to produce an
un-deflected beam. When the
magnetic field is turned off, the
electric field produces a
measurable deflection that’s F  qE  qvB and F  ma
recorded on the fluorescent
m 1 2
screen. a  E  vB ( at  h, vt  s)
q 2
20 Section 29.3
Example 4: The Cyclotron (Optional)

A cyclotron is a device that can

accelerate charged particles to very
high speeds.
The energetic particles produced
are used to bombard atomic nuclei
and thereby produce nuclear
reactions of interest to researchers.
Main principles: The frequency of
the applied potential difference is
adjusted so that the polarity of the
“dees” (Ds) is reversed in the same
time interval during which the ions
travels around one “dee” (D).
The kinetic energy of the ion when K .E.  N  qV N – the number of accelerations
it exits the cyclotron can be
1 2 q2 B 2 R 2 qBR
expressed as: K .E.  mv  (since v  )
2 2m m
21 Section 29.3
Magnetic Force on a Current Carrying Conductor
(a) A force is exerted on a current-carrying wire placed in a magnetic field.
 The current is a collection of many charged particles in motion.
(b) No current, so there is no force.
The wire remains vertical.
(c) The magnetic field is into the
page. The current is up the page.
The force is to the left & the wire
deflects to the left.
(d) The magnetic field is into the
page. The current is down the page.
The force is to the right. The wire
deflects to the right.

22 Section 29.4
Force on a Wire, equation
The magnetic force is exerted on each moving
charge in the wire.
  
F  qv d  B
The total force is the product of the force on one
charge and the number of charges.
  
F  N ( qv d  B) volume  AL
 
 nAL ( qv d  B) N  n  volume  nAL
 I  nqvd A
 nqvd A( Lvˆ d  B) ˆ (unit vectors)
vˆ d  L
  
 I𝐼(𝐋
𝐅Ԧ = B
ԦL× 𝐁) L  LL ˆ  Lvˆ d
v̂ d is a unit vector of vd

L is a vector that points in the direction of
the current and its magnitude is the length
L of the segment.
23 Section 29.4
Example: Force on semicircular conductor
A wire bent into a semicircle of radius R forms a closed circuit and carries a
current I. The wire lies in the xy plane, and a uniform magnetic field is directed
along the positive y axis as in Figure 29.20. Find the magnitude and direction of
the magnetic force acting on the straight portion of the wire and on the curved
portion.
 
Note that ds is perpendicu lar to B everywhere on the
straight portion of the wire, so the force on this portion :
   
F1  IL  B  2 IRB k
To find the magnetic force on the curved part, first
firstwrit e
write
 
an expression for the magnetic force dF2 on the element ds in
the figure, then do the integral along the whole curved portion, Portion 1
   
dF2  Ids  B   IB sin  dsk and ds  Rd 
  y
    
F2    IBR sin d k   IBR  sin d k   IBR  cos  0 k
x
0 0
  k
  IBR (cos   cos 0)k  2 IRB k
Force on Each Side of a Current Loop

The rectangular loop carries a current I in a

uniform magnetic field.
No magnetic force acts on sides 1 & 3.
 
 The wires are parallel to the field and L B  0
There are forces on sides 2 & 4 since they are
perpendicular to the field.
The magnitude of the magnetic force on these
sides will be:
 F2 = F4 = I a B
The direction of F2 is out of the page.
The direction of F4 is into the page.

25 Section 29.5
Torque on a Current Loop (optional)

The forces are equal and in opposite

directions, but not along the same line of
action.
The forces produce a torque around point O.
The maximum torque is found by:
b b
 max  F2  F4
2 2
b b
 ( IaB )  ( IaB )  IabB
2 2
The area enclosed by the loop is A = ab,
so τmax = IAB.
 This maximum value occurs only when the field
is parallel to the plane of the loop.

26 Section 29.5
Torque on a Current Loop, General (optional)
Assume the magnetic field makes an angle of
 < 90o with a line perpendicular to the plane of the
loop.
The net torque about point O will be τ = IAB sin
b b
 max  F2 sin   F4 sin   IAB sin 
2 2
A convenient vector expression for the torque
 on a loop placed in a uniform magnetic
exerted
field B is
  
τ  IA  B

where A is perpendicular to the plane of the loop
and has a magnitude equal to the area of the loop.

27 Section 29.5 Active Figure 29.21

Hall Effect
When a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, a potential difference is generated in
the direction perpendicular to both the current and the
magnetic field.
This phenomena is known as the Hall effect.
It arises from the deflection of charge carriers
(electrons in a conductor) to one side of the conductor
as a result of the magnetic forces they experience.
The Hall effect gives information regarding the sign of
the charge carriers and their density.
It can also be used to measure magnetic fields.
Right: an arrangement for observing the Hall effect.
The Hall voltage is measured between points a & c.

28 Section 29.6
Hall Voltage, schematics

When the charge carriers are negative, they experience an upward magnetic force, they
are deflected upward, an excess of positive charge is left at the lower edge. This
accumulation of charge establishes an electric field in the conductor.

29 Section 29.6
Hall Voltage, mathematics
When the magnetic force exerted on the carriers qvdB is balanced by the electric
force qEH, qvdB = qEH , we have EH = vdB.
If d is the width of the conductor, the Hall voltage is VH = EHd = vdBd.
 vd is the drift velocity, can be expressed as vd = I/nqA with A = td, where t is
the thickness of the conductor, then
𝐼 𝐼𝐵
𝛥𝑉H = 𝑣d 𝐵𝑑 = 𝐵𝑑 = 𝑅H
𝑛𝑞𝑡𝑑 𝑡

 RH = 1/nq is called the Hall coefficient.

 This relationship shows that a properly
calibrated conductor can be used to measure
the magnitude of an unknown magnetic field.
 The sign and magnitude of RH give the sign of
the charge carriers and their number density.
30 Section 29.6
Chapter 30
Sources of Magnetic Fields
Topics being covered in Chapter 30 – Sources of magnetic fields

• Biot-Savart Law
• Magnetic force between two parallel currents
• Ampѐre’s Law
• Magnetic field of a Solenoid

32 Introduction
Origin of magnetic fields
The origin of the magnetic field is currents.
Biot-Savart law and Ampère’s law provide ways to calculate the magnetic
fields associated with distribution of currents.
Magnetic effects in matter can be explained on the basis of circulating currents

Biot-Savart Law – Introduction

Biot and Savart conducted experiments on the force exerted by an electric
current on a nearby magnet.
They arrived at a mathematical expression that gives the magnetic field at some
point in space due to a current.
The magnetic field described by the Biot-Savart Law is the field due to a given
current carrying conductor.
 Do not confuse this field with any external field applied to the conductor from
some other source.
33 Section 30.1
Biot-Savart Law – Schematics
Experimental observations include:
 
(1) The vector dB is perpendicular to both ds (which points
 the current) and to the unit vector r̂
in the direction of
directed from ds toward P.

The magnitude of dB 
is inversely proportional to r2, where r
is the distance from ds to P.

The magnitude of dB is proportional to
 the current and to the
magnitude ds of the length element ds .

The magnitude of dB is proportional
 to sinθ, where θ is the
angle between the vectors ds and r̂ .
These observations are summarized as Biot-Savart Law:
  0 Id s  rˆ
dB 
4 r 2
where μ0 is a constant called the permeability of free space: μ0 = 4π x 10-7 T∙m/A.
34 Section 30.1
Total Magnetic Field (Biot-Savart Law in Integral Form)
 
dB is the field created by the current in the length segment d s of the conductor.

To find the total field, sum up the contributions from all the current elements Id s
 0 I 
d s  rˆ
B
4  r2 Note: This is unit vector

r̂, not the position vector r
 The integral is over the entire current distribution.
The law is also valid for a current consisting of charges flowing through space.

 For example, this could apply to the beam in an accelerator. In that case, ds
represents the length of a small segment of space in which the charges
flow.

35 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field Compared to Electric Field

Distance
 The magnitude of the magnetic field varies as the inverse square of the
distance from the source while the electric field due to a point charge also
varies as the inverse square of the distance from the charge.
Direction
 The electric field created by a point charge is the radial direction
connecting the charge location and the position of interest, but the magnetic
field created
 by a current element is perpendicular to both the length
element ds and the unit vector r̂ .
Source
 An electric field is established by an isolated electric charge.
 The current element that produces a magnetic field must be part of an
extended current distribution. Therefore you must integrate over the entire
current distribution to obtain the total magnetic field.
36 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field for a Curved Wire Segment

Find the field at point O due to the wire segment.

Conceptualize: Note that the magnetic field at O
 straight segments AA’ and
due to the current in the
CC’ is zero because ds is parallel to r̂ along these

paths, which means that d s rˆ  0 for these paths.

Each length element ds along path AC is at the
same distancea from O. Furthermore, at every 
point on AC, ds is perpendicular to r̂ ; hence ds rˆ  ds
 0 Ids
dB 
4 a 2
0 I 0 I 0 I
4a 2 
B ds  s (a ) For a circular loop of 𝜃 = 2𝜋, we have
4a 2 4a 2 0 I
I B
B 0  2a
4a
37 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field for a Circular Loop of Wire

Consider a circular wire loop of radius

a located in the yz plane and carrying
a steady current I.
Calculate the magnetic field at an
axial point P at a distance x from the
center of the loop.

Note: By symmetry, the total field B is
along x-axis.
 
 d s  rˆ  d s  rˆ  ds

0 I d s  rˆ 0 I ds
dB  
4 r 2
4 (a 2  x 2 )
 I ds 0 I ds cos 
dBx  0 2
4 a  x 2
cos   B x   x 4  a 2  x 2
dB 

38 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field for a Circular Loop of wire 2 (Optional)
a
 cos   2
(a  x 2 )1/ 2  ds  2a
0 I ds a 0 I a 0 Ia 2
 Bx  
4 a  x (a  x )
2 2 2 2 1/ 2

4 (a  x )
2 2 3/ 2
(2a) 
2(a 2  x 2 ) 3 / 2
Two special cases:
(1) The magnetic field amplitude at the center of loop, set x = 0
I
Bx  0 (at x  0)
2a
(2) The magnetic field at axial points very far from the loop, x >> a,
0 Ia 2
Bx  (for x  a)
2 x3

39 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field Lines for a Loop

Figure (a) shows the magnetic field lines surrounding a current loop.
Figure (b) compares the field lines to that of a bar magnet.
Notice the similarities in the patterns.
40 Section 30.1
Magnetic Field for a Long, Straight Conductor (Optional)

Find the field contribution from a small element

of current and then integrate over the current
distribution.

Let’s choose ds located at a distance r from p
    
d s  rˆ  d s  rˆ kˆ  dx sin(   )kˆ  ( dx cos  )kˆ
 2 
  I dx cos  ˆ
(1) dB  ( dB )kˆ  0 k
4 r 2

a
( 2) r  and x  a tan 
cos 
ad
(3) dx  a sec 2 d 
cos2 
0 I  ad  cos2   0 I y
( 4) dB      cos   cos d
4  cos2   a 2  4a x
k
41 Section 30.1
 Magnetic Field for a Long, Straight Conductor 2
Integrate the equation over all length elements on the
wire, where the subtending angles range from θ1 to f θ2,
the total field at point P is
m0 I q2 m0 I
B=
4p a
òq
1
cosq dq =
4p a
(sinq 2 - sinq1 )

Magnetic Field for an Infinite Long,

Straight Conductor
If the conductor is an infinitely long, straight wire, 1 = -/2 and 2 = +/2
The field becomes
𝜇𝑜 𝐼
𝐵=
2𝜋𝑎
Both equations show that the magnitude of the magnetic field is proportional to
the current and decreases with increasing the distance from the wire.
42 Section 30.1
Magnetic Force Between Two Parallel Conductors
Two parallel wires each carry a steady current.
The field 𝐁2 of magnitude B2 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼2 /(2𝜋𝑎) due
to the current in wire 2 exerts a force 𝐅Ԧ1 on wire 1.
The magnitude of this force is
𝜇𝑜 𝐼2 𝜇 𝐼 𝐼
𝐹1 = 𝐼1 ℓ𝐵2 = 𝐼1 ℓ( )= 𝑜 1 2 ℓ
2𝜋𝑎 2𝜋𝑎

From Newton’s third law, we know  that the force F2
acting on wire 2 due to the field B1 is equal
 in
magnitude and opposite in direction to F1.
 Parallel conductors carrying currents in the same direction attract each other;
 Parallel conductors carrying currents in opposite directions repel each other.
Because the magnitude of the forces are the same on both wires, we simply
denote this magnitude as FB. We can rewrite this magnitude in terms of the force
per unit length: 𝐹 𝜇 𝐼𝐼
1 𝑜 1 2
=
ℓ 2𝜋𝑎
43 Section 30.2
Definition of the Ampere

The force between two parallel wires can be used to define the unit of ampere.
When the magnitude of the force per unit length between two long, parallel wires
that carry identical currents and are separated by 1 m is 2 x 10-7 N/m, the current
in each wire is defined to be 1 A.

Definition of the Coulomb

The SI unit of charge, the coulomb, is defined in terms of the ampere.

When a conductor carries a steady current of 1 A, the quantity of charge that
flows through a cross section of the conductor in 1 s is 1 C.

44 Section 30.2
Magnetic Field for a Long, Straight Conductor: Direction

The magnetic field lines are circles concentric

with the wire.
The field lines lie in planes perpendicular to the
wire.
The magnitude of the field is constant on any
circle of radius a.
The right-hand rule for determining the direction
of the field is shown.

45 Section 30.3
Magnetic Field of a Wire
A compass can be used to detect
the direction of magnetic fields.
When there is no current in the
wire, the compass needles all
point toward the Earth’s north pole.
46
The compass needles deflect in
a direction tangent to the circle.
This shows the direction of the
magnetic field produced by the
wire. If the current is reversed,
the direction of the needles also
reverse.
Section 30.3
The circular magnetic
field around the wire is
shown by the iron
filings.
Active Figure 30.10.
Ampere’s Law

Because the compass needles point in the direction of B , we conclude that the
lines of B form circles around the wire. By symmetry, the field magnitude is the
same on a circular path centered on the wire and lying in a plane perpendicular
to the wire.
  
The product of B  ds can be evaluated for small length elements ds on the
circular path defined by the compass needles for the long, straight wire.
 
Ampere’s law states that the line integral of B  ds around any closed path =  0 I
where I is the total steady current passing through any surface bounded by the
closed path:
 
 B  ds  0 I
Ampere’s law describes the creation of magnetic fields by all continuous current
configurations.
 Its use is similar to that of Gauss’s law in calculating the electric fields for highly
symmetric charge distributions.
47 Section 30.3
Example 1: Field Due to a Long Straight Wire
Calculate the magnetic field at a distance r
from the center of a wire carrying a steady
current I.
The current is uniformly distributed through
the cross section of the wire (i.e., the current
density is a constant)
Since the wire has a high degree of
symmetry, the problem can be categorized
as a Ampère’s Law problem.
 Outside of the wire, r > R,

ර 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑𝐬Ԧ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 𝜇𝑜 𝐼
→ 𝐵=
𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 2𝜋𝑟

48 Section 30.3
Example 1: Field Due to a Long Straight Wire 2
 Inside the wire, r < R, we need to calculate I’, the current inside the amperian circle,
I ' r 2 r2
Find closed current I’:  2  I' 2 I
I R R
  r2 0 I
Find magnetic field:
 B  d s  B ( 2r )   0 I '   0 (
R 2
I )  B  (
2R 2
)r
(Ampere’s law)

The field is proportional to r inside the wire.

The field varies as 1/r outside the wire.
Both equations are equal at r = R.

49 Section 30.3
Example 2: Magnetic Fields inside a Toroid

A device called a toroid is often used to

create an almost uniform magnetic field in
some enclosed area. The device consists
of a conducting wire wrapped around a
ring (a torus) made of a non-conducting
material.
Find the field at a point at distance r from
the center of the toroid.
Consider the circular loop 1 of radius r.
Applying Ampere’s law
By symmetry, the magnitude of the field is
to loop 1:
constant on this circle and tangent to it,
so ‫𝐬𝑑 ∙ 𝐁 ׯ‬Ԧ = 𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) ර 𝐁 ∙ 𝑑 𝐬Ԧ = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼𝑖𝑛
Furthermore, the wire passes through the
𝐵(2𝜋𝑟) = 𝜇𝑜 (𝑁𝐼)
loop N times, so the total current through
the loop is NI. Thus the field magnitude 𝜇𝑜 𝑁𝐼
𝐵=
50 Section 30.3 2𝜋𝑟
Example 3: Magnetic Field of a Solenoid

A solenoid is a long wire wound in the

form of a helix.
A reasonably uniform magnetic field can
be produced in the space surrounded by
the turns of the wire.
The field lines in the interior are
 Nearly parallel to each other
 Uniformly distributed
 Close together
This indicates the field is strong and
almost uniform.

51 Section 30.4
Ampere’s Law Applied to a Solenoid

1. Consider an amperian loop (loop 1 in the

diagram) surrounding the ideal solenoid
 The loop encloses a small current.
 There is a weak field external to the solenoid.
2. Consider another amperian loop (loop 2 in
the diagram), which is a rectangle with side
ℓ parallel to the interior field and side w
perpendicular to the field)
 Side 1 of length ℓ inside the solenoid contributes
to the integral.
 Sides 2, 3, and 4 give contributions of zero to the
integral.
This loop can help us find the vertical
field inside the solenoid (see next page)
52
Ampere’s Law Applied to a Solenoid, cont.
The integral for loop 2 gives
   
 B  ds   B  ds  B
path 1
 ds  Bl
path 1

The total current through the rectangular path equals the current through each
turn multiplied by the number of turns, i.e. 𝑁𝐼.
 
The Ampere’s law gives  B  d s Bl  0 NI

Solving for the magnetic field, we get

𝑁
𝐵 = 𝜇𝑜 𝐼 = 𝜇𝑜 𝑛𝐼
ℓ
 n = N / ℓ is the number of turns per unit length.
 This is valid only at points near the center of a very long solenoid.

53 Section 30.4
Magnetic Flux

The magnetic flux associated with a magnetic field

is defined in a way similar to electric flux.
Consider an area element dA on an arbitrarily
shaped surface.
The magnetic field in this element is 𝐁.
𝑑𝐀 is a vector that is perpendicular to the surface
and has a magnitude equal to the area dA.
The magnetic flux ΦB is  
 B   B  dA  BA cos 
The unit of magnetic flux is weber, which is
denoted as Wb
 1 Wb = 1 T.m2

54
Gauss’s Law in Magnetism

Magnetic fields do not begin or end at any point.

 Magnetic field lines are continuous and form closed loops.
 The number of lines entering a surface equals the number of lines leaving
the surface.
Gauss’s law in magnetism says the magnetic flux through any closed surface is
always zero:

ර𝐁 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀 = 0

This indicates that isolated magnetic poles (monopoles) have never been
detected.
 Perhaps they do not exist.
 Certain theories do suggest the possible existence of magnetic monopoles.

55 Section 30.5
Chapter 31
Faraday’s law
Topics being covered in Chapter 31 – Faraday’s Law

• Faraday’s Law of Induction

• Motional emf
• Lenz’s Law
• Induced emf and electric fields
• Generators and Motors (partly optional)

57 Introduction
Induced Fields
Magnetic fields may vary in time.
Experiments conducted in 1831 showed that a current can be produced by a
changing magnetic field.
 Experiments were done by Michael Faraday and Joseph Henry.
The results of these experiments led to Faraday’s Law of Induction.
It was concluded that there must be an induced emf associated
with the induced current.

Faraday’s law of induction describes the induced emf.

Note: emf = electromotive force

─ It is similar to potential difference
─ Not a mechanical force
─ Unit: volt

58 Introduction Michael Faraday

Induced Current Experiment, Summary

59 Section 31.1
EMF Produced by a Changing Magnetic Field, Summary
The ammeter deflects when the magnet is moving toward or away from the loop.
The ammeter also deflects when the loop is moved toward or away from the
magnet.
Therefore, the loop detects that the magnet is moving relative to it.
 We relate this detection to a change in the magnetic field passing through
the loop.
 This is the induced current that is produced by an induced emf.

60 Section 31.1
Faraday’s Experiment – Set Up

A primary coil is connected to a switch and

a battery.
The wire is wrapped around an iron ring.
A secondary coil is also wrapped around
the iron ring.
There is no battery present in the
secondary coil.
The secondary coil is not directly
connected to the primary coil.
Close the switch and observe the current
readings given by the ammeter.

Faraday’s induction
iron ring made in 1831
61 Section 31.1
Faraday’s Experiment – Findings and Conclusions

At the instant the switch is closed, the ammeter changes from zero in one
direction and then returns to zero.
When the switch is opened, the ammeter changes in the opposite direction and
then returns to zero.
The ammeter reads zero when there is a steady current or when there is no
current in the primary circuit.

The induced current exists only while the magnetic field through the loop is
changing.
This is generally expressed as: an induced emf is produced in the loop by the
changing magnetic field.

62 Section 31.1
Faraday’s Law of Induction – Statements

The emf induced in a circuit is directly proportional to the changing rate of the
magnetic flux through the circuit.
Mathematically,
d B
ε
dt
Negative sign
Remember B is the magnetic flux through the circuit and is found by
 
 B   B  dA
If the circuit consists of N closely wrapped loops, all of the same area, the total
emf induced in the N-loop coil becomes
d B
ε  N where B is the flux through each loop
dt

63
Faraday’s Law – Example

Assume a loop enclosing an area A lies in a uniform

magnetic field.
The magnetic flux through the loop is Φ𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos𝜃.
The induced emf is
d
ε ( BA cos  )
dt
To induce an emf in the loop:
(1) The magnitude of the magnetic field can change
with time.
(2) The area enclosed by the loop can change with time.
(3) The angle between the magnetic field and the normal to the loop can
change with time. Any combination of the above can occur.

64 Section 31.1
Applications of Faraday’s Law – GFCI (optional)
A GFCI (ground fault circuit interrupter)
protects users of electrical appliances
against electric shock.
When the currents in the wires are in
opposite directions and of equal
magnitude, the flux is zero because there
is no magnetic field surrounding the wires.
When the return current in wire 2 changes,
the flux is no longer zero.
The resulting induced emf in the sensing
coil can be used to trigger a circuit breaker.

65 Section 31.1
Applications of Faraday’s Law – Pickup Coil (optional)

The pickup coil of an electric guitar

uses Faraday’s law.
The coil is placed near the vibrating
string and causes a portion of the string
to become magnetized.
When the string vibrates at some
frequency, the magnetized segment
produces a changing flux through the
coil.
The induced emf is fed to an amplifier.
The output of the amplifier is sent to the
loudspeakers, which produce the sound
waves we hear.

66 Section 31.1
Example 1: Inducing an emf in a coil

A coil consists of 200 turns of wire. Each turn is a square of side d = 18 cm, and a
uniform magnetic field directed perpendicular to the plane of the coil is turned on.
If the field changes linearly from 0 to 0.50 T in 0.80 s, what is the magnitude of the
induced emf in the coil while the field is changing?
Solution:
a
Evaluate the emf using Faraday’s law and note that
the magnetic field changes linearly with time:
a
 B ( BA) ( B ) 2 B f  Bi
ε N N  NA  Nd
t t t t
(0.05T  0)
ε  (200)( 0.18m) 2
 4.0V
0.80s

67 Section 31.1
Example 2: An exponentially decaying magnetic field (Optional)
A loop of wire enclosing an area A is placed in a region where the magnetic field
is perpendicular to the plane of the loop. The magnitude of B varies according
 at
to B  Bmax e , where a is the some constant. That’s, at t = 0, the field is Bmax ,
and for t > 0, the field decreases exponentially. Find the induced emf in the loop
as a function of time.
Solution:
Evaluate the emf using Faraday’s law,

B  Bmax e  at
d B d
ε   ( ABmax e  at )
dt dt
d
  ABmax e  at  aABmax e  at
dt

68 Section 31.1
Motional emf
A motional emf is the emf induced in a conductor
moving through a constant magnetic field.
The electrons in the conductor experience a force 𝐅Ԧ =
𝑞𝐯 × 𝐁, that is directed along ℓ,
Under the influence of the force, the electrons move
to the lower end of the conductor and accumulate
there. Charge separation -> internal electric field.
When forces are balanced, 𝑞𝐸 = 𝑞𝑣𝐵 or E = vB.
The electric field is related to the potential difference
across the ends of the conductor: V = Eℓ = Bℓv.
A potential difference is maintained between the ends
of the conductor as long as the conductor continues
to move through the uniform magnetic field.
If the direction of the motion is reversed, the polarity
of the potential difference is also reversed.
Section 31.2
Sliding Conducting Bar
A conducting bar moving through a uniform field and the
equivalent circuit diagram.
Assume the bar has zero resistance.
The stationary part of the circuit has a resistance 𝑅.
The induced emf is:

d B d
ε   ( Blx )
dt dt
dx
  Bl   Blv
dt
ε Blv
I 
R R

70
Example 1: Magnetic force acting on a sliding bar (Optional)

dv dv B 2l 2
Fx  ma  m   IlB , I  Blv / R  m   v
dt dt R
dv  B 2l 2  v
dv B 2l 2
t
  dt     dt
v  mR  vi
v mR 0
v  B 2l 2 
ln     t  v  vi e t / if   mR / B 2l 2
 vi   mR 

71 Section 31.2
Example 1: Magnetic force acting on a sliding bar (cont.)

d 1 2
Presistor   Pbar  I R   ( mv )
2

dt 2
B 2l 2 v 2 dv dv  B 2l 2 
  mv    dt
R dt v  mR 
72 Section 31.2
Example 2: Motional emf induced in a rotating bar (Optional)


B

dε  Bvdr v  r
l l l 1
ε   dε   Bvdr B  rdr  Bl 2
0 0 0 2

73 Section 31.2
Lenz’s Law

Faraday’s law indicates that the induced emf and the change in flux have
opposite algebraic signs.
This has a physical interpretation that has come to be known as Lenz’s law.
Developed by German physicist Heinrich Lenz.
Lenz’s law: the induced current in a loop is in the direction that creates a
magnetic field that opposes the change in magnetic flux through the area
enclosed by the loop.
The induced current tends to keep the original magnetic flux through the circuit
from changing.
Lenz’s law is often used to determine the direction of induced current.

More about magnetic force and Lenz’s Law: science experiment

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_GpuySSf2so

74 Section 31.3
Lenz’s Law, Example
The conducting bar slides on
the two fixed conducting rails.
The magnetic flux due to the
external magnetic field through
the enclosed area increases
with time.
The induced current must
produce a magnetic field out of
the page.
If the bar moves in the opposite
direction, the direction of the
induced current will also be
reversed.

75 Section 31.3
Induced Current Directions – Example

A magnet is placed near a metal loop.

a)Find the direction of the induced current in the loop when the magnet is
pushed toward the loop (a and b).
b)Find the direction of the induced current in the loop when the magnet is
pulled away from the loop (c and d).

76 Section 31.3
Example: A loop moving through a magnetic field


B

(B)

(A) (C)

77
Induced emf and Electric Fields

An electric field is created in the conductor as

a result of the changing magnetic flux.
Even in the absence of a conducting loop, a
changing magnetic field will generate an
electric field in empty space.
This induced electric field is non-conservative.
 Unlike the electric field produced by
stationary charges.
The emf for any closed path  can be expressed
as the line integral of E  d s over the path.
Faraday’s law can be written in a general
form:   d B
 E  d s  ε  
dt
78 Section 31.4
Example: Electric field induced by a changing magnetic field in a solenoid

A long solenoid of radius R has n turns of wire per unit length and carries a time-
varying current that varies sinusoidally as I  I max cos t , where I max is the
maximum current and ω is the angular frequency of alternating current source.
Determine the magnitude of the induced electric
field outside the solenoid at a distance 𝑟 > 𝑅 from
its long central axis.
d B d dB
   ( BR 2 )  R 2
dt dt dt
B   0 nI   0 nI max cos t
d B d
  R 2  0 nI max (cos t )  R 2  0 nI max  sin t
dt dt
 
       0 nI max  sin t
2
E d s E ( 2 r ) R
 0 nI max R 2
E sin t (for r  R)
79 2r Section 31.4
Generators
Electric generators take in energy by work and transfer
it out by electrical transmission.
The AC generator consists of a loop of wire rotated by
some external means in a magnetic field.
As the loop rotates in the magnetic field, the magnetic
flux through the area enclosed by the loop changes
with time, and this change induces an emf and a
current in the loop according to Faraday’s Law.
The ends of the loop are connected to slip rings that
rotate with the loop. Connections from these slip rings
act as output terminals of the generator to the external
circuit.
Active Figure 31.17.

80 Section 31.5
Generators: Mathematical Description of a Rotating Loop
Assume a coil loop with N turns, all of the same
area A rotating in a magnetic field with a
constant angular speed ω.
If θ is angle between the magnetic field and
normal to the plane of the coil, the flux through
the loop at any time t is
𝐹𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡, where 𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡.
Hence,
d B d
ε  N   NAB (cos t )
dt dt
 NAB sin t
This is a sinusoidal curve as shown in last slide.
Ɛmax = NAB occurs when 𝜔𝑡 = 90⁰ or 270⁰, when the magnetic field is in the plane of the coil
and the time rate of change of flux is a maximum.
Ɛ = 0 when 𝜔𝑡 = 0⁰ or 180⁰ , when the magnetic field is perpendicular to the plane of the coil
and the time rate of change of flux is zero.
DC Generators (optional)
The DC (direct current) generator has essentially the
same components as the AC generator.
The main difference is that the contacts to the rotating
loop are made using a split ring called a commutator.
In this configuration, the output voltage always has the
same polarity.
It also oscillates with time.
To obtain a steady DC current, commercial generators
use many coils and commutators distributed so the
pulses are out of phase.

82 Section 31.5
Motors (optional)
Motors are devices into which energy is transferred by electrical transmission
while energy is transferred out by work, which is a generator operating in reverse.
A current is supplied to the coil by a battery and the torque acting on the current-
carrying coil causes it to rotate.
Useful mechanical work can be done by attaching the rotating coil to some
external device.
However, as the coil rotates in a magnetic field, an emf is induced.
 This induced emf always acts to reduce the current in the coil.
 The back emf increases in magnitude as the rotational speed of the coil
increases.
The current in the rotating coil is limited by the back emf.
 The term back emf is commonly used to indicate an emf that tends to reduce
the supplied current.
83 Section 31.5
Eddy Currents (Optional)
• Circulating currents called eddy currents
are induced in bulk pieces of metal
moving through a magnetic field.
• The eddy currents are in opposite
directions as the plate enters or leaves
the field.
• This leads to a transformation of
mechanical energy into internal energy
 and heat to the environment