CHAPTER 2

DIFFERENTIAL FORMULATION
OF THE BASIC LAWS
2.1 Introduction
 Solutions must satisfy 3 fundamental laws:
conservation of mass
conservation of momentum
conservation of energy

 Differential formulation: application of basic laws

to differential element

1
2.2 Flow Generation
(i) Forced convection: by mechanical means(fan, blower,
nozzle, jet, etc.)
(ii) Free (natural) convection: due to gravity and density
change
2.3 Laminar vs. Turbulent Flow
u t u l u

(
t (
t
Fig.2 .1
Laminar: No random fluctuations
Turbulent: Random fluctuations 2
Transition from laminar to turbulent:
Transition Reynolds number, depends on
 flow geometry
 surface roughness
 pressure gradient
 etc.
Flow over flat plate:  500,000
Flow through tubes:  2300

2.4 Conservation of Mass:

The Continuity Equation

3
2.4.1 Cartesian Coordinates

m
y  yd
m
y
y 

m
x xd
m
d
x
m x
d
d d
x y
m
( (
F
ig
.2.2

Roma te - a
Romr f e a
(2.1)

Romc we a
4
Assume continuum, use Fig. 2.2b, and (2.1)
 m x 
m x  m y  m z   m x  dx  
 x 
 m y   m z  m
 m y  y dy    m z  z dz   t (a)
   

Express (a) in terms of density and velocity

  VA
m (b)

Apply (b) to element

 x   udydz
m (c)

 y   v dxdz
m (d)

 z   wdxdy
m (e)

5
Mass m of element
m   dxdydz (f)

(c)–(f) into (a)

   
  u   v    w   0 (2.2a)
 t x y z
 (2.2a) is the continuity equation
Alternate forms:
     u v  w 
 u  v w     0 (2.2b)
t x y z  x x x 
or
D 
   V  0 (2.2c)
Dt
6
 or
 
  V  0 (2.2d)
t
Special case: constant density (incompressible fluid)
D
0
(2.2c) becomes Dt

 V  0 (2.3)

2.4.2 Cylindrical Coordinates

z
(r,z, )
•
r x
y 
Fig . 2.3 7
  1  1  
  r v r     v     v z   0 (2.4)
t r r r  z

2.4.3 Spherical Coordinates

z (r, ,  )
•
 r
x

y
Fig. 2.4

 1 

 t r r
2

 r 2v r  1 
r sin 
  v sin  
1 
r sin 
 
 v   0 (2.5)

8
Example 2.1: Fluid in Angular Motion
 Shaft rotates inside tube r
 Incompressible fluid
 No axial motion 
 Give the continuity equation 
Solution s
(1) Observations
 Cylindrical coordinates
 No variation in axial and angular
directions
(2)Problem
Incompressible
Definition.fluid
Simplify the 3-D continuity
(3) Solution Plan.
Apply the continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates
9
(4) Plan Execution
(i) Assumptions
 Incompressible
 No axial motion
 Shaft and tube are concentric (axisymmetric, no
angular variation)
(ii) Analysis. Start with (2.4):
 1  1  
  rv r     v     v z   0 (2.4)
t r r r  z
Simplify
 
Incompressible fluid: is constant, 0
t
No axial velocity: v z  0

Axisymmetric: 0
 10
 
(2.4), gives r v r   0 (a)
r

Integrate rv r  C (b)

C = constant of integration

Boundary condition: v r ( r o , )  0

Use (b) C 0 (c)

(b) gives vr  0 (d)

(iii) Checking
Dimensional check: Each term in (2.4) has units of
density per unit time.
(5) Comments
11
2.5 Conservation of Momentum:
The Navier-Stokes Equation of Motion

2.5.1 Cartesian Coordinates

 Momentum is a vector y d
quantity
 Newton’s law of motion: d d
3 components
 Apply Newton’s law to x
element, Fig. 2.5
z F 2
 
  F  ( m )a (a)

12
 
a = acceleration of the element

 F = external force on element
 m = mass of the element
x-direction:   Fx  ( m )a x (b)

Mass  m  m   dxdydz (c)

Total acceleration a x
du Du u u u u
ax   u v w  (d)
dt Dt x y z t
(c) and (d) into (b)
Du
  Fx   dxdydz (e)
Dt
13
External x-forces:
(i) Body force (gravity)
(ii) Surface force

Total forces
δ Fx  δ Fx body  δ Fx surface (f)

Gravity force:  Fx body  g x dxdydz (g)

Surface forces:
 xx  normal stress on surface dydz
14
  yx = shearing (tangential) stress on surface dxdz
 zx = shearing (tangential) stress on surface dxdy
Summing up x-forces, Fig. 2.6
  xx  yx  zx 
 Fx surface     dxdydz (h)
 x y z 
Substituting (f), (g) and (h) into (e)
x-direction:
Du  xx  yx  zx
   gx    (2.6a)
Dt x y z
Similarly, for y and z-directions
y-direction:
Dv  xy  yy  zy
 ρ gy    (2.6b)
Dt x y z
15
 z-direction:
Dw  xz  yz  zz
   gz    (2.6c)
Dt x y z
Unknowns in (2.6), 13:
u, v, w,  ,  xx ,  yy ,  zz , xy ,  yx , xz ,  zy ,  zx , yz
However
 xy   yx ,  xz   zx ,  yz   zy (i)

Reduce number of unknowns:

Use empirical relations called the constitutive equations
 v u 
 xy   yx     (2.7a)
  x y 

 w u 
 xz   zx     (2.7b)
 x z  16
  v w 
 yz   zy      (2.7c)
 z y 
u 2 
 xx   p  2    V (2.7d)
x 3
v 2 
 yy   p  2   V (2.7e)
y 3
w 2 
 zz   p  2    V (2.7f)
z 3
 Fluids obeying (2.7) are Newtonian fluids
Substitute (2.7) into (2.6 )
Du p    u 2  
  g x      2    V   
Dt x x   x 3 
(2.8x)
   u v      w u  
          
y   y x   z   x z   17
 Dv p    v 2  
  g y      2    V   
Dt y y   y 3 
(2.8y)
   v w      u v  
          
z   z y   x   y x  

Dw p    w 2  
  g z      2   V  
Dt z z   z 3 
(2.8z)
   w u      v w  
          
x   x z   y   z y  
NOTE:
 Eqs. (2.8) are the Navier-Stokes equations of motion
 Unknowns are 6: u, v, w, p,  , 
 Restrictions: continuum and Newtonian fluid
18
Vector form of (2.8x), (2.8y) and (2.8z)

   2
 g  p   V   V     V  
DV   4

Dt 3
  
    V    V       V  (2.8)

Simplified cases:
(i) Constant viscosity
  0 (j)
and
    2
    V     V     V    V    V (k)

(j) and (k) into (2.8)


 2
 g  p    V    V
DV   1
 (2.9)
Dt 3
19
Eq. (2.9) is valid for: (1) continuum, (2) Newtonian (3)
constant viscosity.
(ii) Constant viscosity and density
Continuity equation (2.3)

 V  0 (2.3)
(2.3) into (2.9)

DV   2
  g   p    V (2.10)
Dt
Eq. (2.10) is valid for: (1) continuum, (2) Newtonian (3)
constant viscosity (4) constant density
The 3-components of (2.10):

20
x-direction:
 u u u u 
  u  v  w  
 t x y z 
p   2u  2u  2u 
g x     2  2  2  (2.10x)
z-direction: x  x y z 
 w w w w 
 u v w 
 t x y z 
p   2w  2w  2w 
g z     2  2  2  (2.10y)
z  x y z 
y-direction:
 v v v v 
  u  v w 
 t x y z 
p   2v  2v  2v 
g y     2  2  2  (2.10z)
y  x y z  21
2.5.2 Cylindrical Coordinates
Assumptions: Continuum, (2) Newtonian fluid, (3) constant
viscosity and (4) constant density.
r-direction:
 v r v  v r v  2  v  v 
 v r   vz r
 r 
  r r   r  z  t 
 
p   1   1  v r 2 v   v r 
2 2
g r      ( rv r )   2  2  2 
r 
 r r  r  r  2
r   z 
 -direction: (2.11r)
 v  v  v  v r v  v  v  
 v r   vz  
 r r  r z t 
1 p   1   1  2
v  2  v  2
v 
g     ( rv  )   2  2 r
 
r   r  r r  r  2
r  z 2

(2.11  )22
 z-direction:
 v z v  v z v z v z 
 v r  vz  
 r r  z t 
p  1   v z  1  2 v z  2 v z 
g z     r  2  2 
z  r  r   r  r  2
z 
(2.11z)

2.5.3 Spherical Coordinates

Assumptions: Continuum, (2) Newtonian fluid, (3) constant
viscosity and (4) constant density.
r-direction:
 v  v  v 2
 v 2
 
 v r r   r    
 r
v v v r  v
 r r  r sin  r t 
 
p  2 2 2 v  2v  cot 2 v  
gr      v r  2 v r  2   2 
r  r r  r 2
r sin  
(2.12r)
23
 -direction:
 v v  v  v  v  v 
 cot  v  
2

 vr    
v r v
  
 r r  r sin  r r t 
 
1 p  2 2 v r v 2 cos v  
g      v     

r   r  r sin  r sin   
2 2 2 2 2
(2.11  )
 -direction:
 v  v  v  v v  v v r v v  v  
  v r     cot   
 r r  r sin  r r t 
1 p
g  
r sin 
 2 v 2 v r 2 cos v  
   v   2 2  2 2  2 2 
 r sin  r sin   r sin   
(2.11 )

24
 Where  2 is
1  2  1     1 2
   2  sin  2 2
2
2 r 
r (2.13)
r r  r sin     r sin   2

Example 2.2: Thin Liquid Film Flow Over an

Inclined Surface
 Incompressible y
 Parallel streamlines.
 Write the Navier-Stokes u
equations 0
g x

(1) Observations
 Flow is due to gravity
 Parallel streamlines: v = 0
 Surface pressure is uniform (atmospheric)
 Cartesian geometry 25
(2) Problem Definition.
Simplify the x and y components of the Navier-Stokes
equations
(3) Solution Plan.
Start with the Navier-Stokes equations in Cartesian
coordinates and simplify for this case
(4) Plan Execution
(i) Assumptions
 Newtonian
 steady state
 flow is in the x-direction only
 constant properties
 uniform ambient pressure
 parallel streamlines
26
 (ii) Analysis
Start with (2.10x ) and (2.10y)
 u u u u 
  u  v  w  
 t x y z 
p   2u  2u  2u 
g x     2  2  2  (2.10x)
x  x y z 

 v v v v 
  u  v w 
 t x y z 
p   2v  2v  2v 
g y     2  2  2  (2.10y)
y  x y z 
Gravitational acceleration:
g x  g sin , g y   g cos (a)
27
Simplifications:
u v
Steady state:  0 (b)
t t
Axial flow (x-direction only):

w 0 (c)
z
Parallel streamlines: v 0 (d)

(a)-(d) into (2.10x) and (2.10y)

u p   2u  2u 
u  g sin     2  (e)
x x  x
2
y 
and
p
0 =  g cos  (f)
y
(f) is thy y-momentum equation
28
Simplify (e) using continuity (2.3)
 u v w
 V    0 (g)
x y  z
(c) and (d) into (g)
u
0 (h)
x
(h) into (e)
p  u2
 g sin    2 0 (i)
x y
Integrate (f)
p  (  g cos ) y  f ( x ) (j)
f(x) = “constant” of integration
At free surface, y  H , pressure is uniform equal to p .
Set y  H in (j)
f ( x )  p   gH cos (k)
29
(k) into (j)
p   g( H  y ) cos  p (l)

Different (k)
p
0 (m)
x
(m) into (i)
d 2u
 g sin    2
0 (n)
dy
This is the x-component
(iii) Checking
Dimensional check: Each term in (f) and (n) must have
same units:
 g cos  = (kg/m3)(m/s2) = kg/m2-s2

 p N/m2 N kg  m/s 2
  3  kg/m2
- s 2
y m m m3
30
 g sin  = kg/m2-s2
d 2u m/s
 = (kg/m-s) = kg/m 2-s2
d y2 m2
Limiting check: For zero gravity fluid remains stationary.
Set g = 0 in (n) gives
d 2u
2
0 (o)
dy
Solution to (o): u  0,  fluid is stationary
(5) Comments
 Significant simplifications for: For 2-D incompressible,
parallel flow
 The flow is 1-D since u depends on y only
31
2.6 Conservation of Energy: The Energy Equation
2.6.1 Cartesian Coordinates
y d
d d
x
z F 2
E
cn
bco
d n
Apply to element dxdydz

32
 A B
R oc
i a k
o
N
e
r oi
t
a k
bc
n
a

e oe n
C D
N r oh _Nr ow d b e
a bc e os g d

(2.14)

 Express each term in (2.14) in terms of temperature

(Appendix A)
 Explain physical significance of each term
 Result is called the energy equation
 Assumptions
33
  Continuum
 Newtonian
 Negligible nuclear, electromagnetic and radiation energy

(1) A = Rate of change of internal and kinetic energy of

element
 Internal energy of element depends on temperature
(thermodynamic)
 Kinetic energy of element depends on velocity (flow
field)

A

t
 
 ( uˆ  V 2 / 2) dxdydz (A-1)

34
(2) B = Net rate of internal and kinetic energy by convection
 Internal energy convected through sides with mass flow.
Depends on temperature
 Kinetic energy convected through sides of element with
mass flow. Depends on velocity

B  (uˆ  V 2 / 2)  V  dxdydz

  (A-2)

(3) C = Net rate of heat addition by conduction

 Conduction at each surface depends on temperature
gradient
 Apply Fourier’s law (1.6)
C  ( q ) dxdydz
 (A-3)

35
(4) D = Net rate of work done by the element on the
surroundings
R
o
wfva
fo

36
  18 surface forces (Fig. 2.6)
 3 body forces (gravity)
 Total 21 forces at 21 velocities
  
D    V  g dxdydz   ( u xx  v  xy  w xz ) 
 x
  
( u yx  v  yy  w yz )  ( u zx  v  zy  w zz ) dxdydz
y z 
(A-7)
Substitute (A-1), (A-2), (A-3) and (A-7) into (2.14)
  1 2   1 2  
   uˆ  V       uˆ  V  V 
t   2   2  
  
   q   V  g    ( u xx  v  xy  w xz ) 
 x
  
( u yx  v  yy  w yz )  ( u zx  v  zy  w zz ) (A-8)
y z 
37
Simplify using:
 Fourier’s law (1.6)
 Continuity equation (2.2)
 Momentum equations (2.6)
 Constitutive equations (2.7)
 Thermodynamic relations for û and ĥ
DT Dp
 cp    kT   T   (2.15)
Dt Dt
where
  coefficient of thermal expansion (compressibility)
  is a property
1   
    (2.16)
  T  p
 = dissipation function (energy due to friction)
38
  u 2  v  2  2
   w  
  2         
  x   y   z  
 
  u v  2  v w  2   2
       w u 
    
 y x   z y   x z  
 
2
2  u v w 
    (2.17)
3  x y z 
  is Important in high speed flow and for very viscous
fluids
2.6.2 Simplified Form of the Energy Equation
(a) Cartesian Coordinates
 Use (2.15)
 Assumptions leading to (2.15):
39
  Continuum
 Newtonian
 Negligible nuclear, electromagnetic and radiation
energy transfer
 Special cases
(i) Incompressible fluid
 0
and
c p  cv  c

DT
c p    kT    (2.18)
Dt
(ii) Incompressible constant conductivity fluid
(2.18) is simplified further constant k: 40
 DT
c p  k 2T    (2.19a)
Dt
or
 T T T T    2T  2T  2T 
 c  u v w   k     
 t x y z   x 2 y 2 z 2 
  (2.19b)
(iii) Ideal gas p
 (2.20)
RT
(2.20) into (2.16)
1    1 p 1
      (2.21)
  T  p  RT 2 T
(2.21) into (2.15)
DT Dp
 cp    kT    (2.22)
Dt Dt
Using continuity (2.2c) and (2.20)
DT 
 cv    kT  p  V   (2.23)
Dt 41
(b) Cylindrical Coordinates
Assume:
 Continuum
 Newtonian fluid
 Negligible nuclear, electromagnetic and radiation energy
transfer
 Incompressible fluid
 Constant conductivity

 T T v  T T 
cP   vr  vz 
 t r r  z 
 1   T  1  2T  2T 
k r  2  2    (2.24)
 r r  r  r  z 
2

where

42
 2 2
 v z 
2
 v r   1 v  v r 
  2   2    2  
 r   r  r   z 
2 2 2

  v v  1  v   1 v z v 0   v r v z 
   r
       (2.25)
 r r r 0   r 0 z   z r 
(c) Spherical Coordinates
Assume:
 Continuum
 Newtonian fluid
 Negligible nuclear, electromagnetic and radiation energy
transfer
 Incompressible fluid
 Constant conductivity

43
  T T v o T v  T  k   2 T 
 c p   vr       r  
 t r r o r sin    r 2 r  r 
 1  T  1  2T 
k  sin o  2    (2.26)
 r sin o o 
2 o  r sin o  
2 2

where
 2  v 
2
  
2
 v  1  vr 1 v  v r v  cot
  2  r      
     
 
  r   r   r   r sin    r r  

2
   v  1 v r 
 r  
 r   
 r  r  
2 2
 sin   v  1 v    1 v r   v 

 r  r sin      r sin   r    (2.27)
   r sin       r  r 

44
Example 2.3: Flow Between Parallel Plates
 Axial flow with dissipation
 Assume:
 Newtonian
 Steady state
 Constant density
 Constant conductivity
 Parallel streamlines
 Write the energy equation
(1) Observations
 Parallel streamlines: v = 0
 Incompressible, constant k
 Include dissipation
 Cartesian geometry
45
(2) Problem Definition
Determine the energy equation for parallel flow
(3) Solution Plan
Start with the energy equation for constant  and k in
Cartesian coordinates and simplify
(4) Plan Execution
(i) Assumptions
 Newtonian
 Steady state
 Axial flow
 Constant  and k
 Negligible nuclear, electromagnetic and radiation
energy transfer
 Parallel streamlines. 46
(ii) Analysis. Start with energy equation (2.19b)
 T T T T    2T  2T  2T 
 c  u v w   k     
 t x y z   x 2 y 2 z 2 
  (2.19b)
where
 u 2  v  2 w  2 
  
  2         
  x   y   z  
 
  u v  2  v w  2 w u  2 
      
    
 y x   z y   x z  
 
2
2  u v w 
    (2.17)
3  x y z 
However
T
Steady state: 0 (a)
t
47
 
Axial flow: w 0 (b)
z
Parallel flow: v 0 (c)

(a)-(c) into (2.19b) and (2.17)

T   2T  2T 
 c u  k  2  2    (d)
x  x y 
2 2 2
    
  2        
u u 2 u
(e)
 x   y  3  x 
Further simplification: use continuity (2.3)
 u v  w
 V    0 (f)
 x  y z
(b) and (c) into (f) gives
u
0 (g)
x 48
 2
 u 
(g) into (e)    (h)
 y 
(h) into (d) gives the energy equation

T  2 
 T  T
2
 u 
2
 c u 
 k 2  2    (i)
x  x y   y 
(iii) Checking
Dimensional check: Each term in (i) has the same
units of W/m 3
Limiting check: For no fluid motion, energy equation reduces
to pure conduction. Set u  0 in (i)

 2T  2T
 0
x 2
y 2

49
(5) Comments
 In energy equation (i), properties c p , k ,  and 
represent fluid nature
 Velocity u represents fluid motion
 Last term in (i) represents dissipation, making (i) non-
linear

2.7 Solutions to the Temperature Distribution

Governing equations: continuity (2.2), momentum (2.8)
and energy (2.15)

50
 TABLE2.1
No. of
Basiclaw Unknowns
Equations

E 1 TT u v w p 
  k n
C 1 u v
w  o
M 3 uv w p  
E oS 1 T p  q
Viscosityrelation 1 T p 
  (p, T)
Conductivityrelation p k
1 T
kk( p,T)
 Solution consideration: Table 2.1 Equation of state
gives c p and cv and 

51
(1) General case: variable properties
 8 unknowns: T, u, v, w, p,  ,  , k , 8 eqs. (yellow box)
 8 eqs. solved simultaneously for 8 unknowns
 Velocity and temperature fields are coupled.

(2) Special case 1: constant k and 

 6 Unknowns: T, u, v, w, p, , 6 eqs., see blue box
 6 eqs. solved simultaneously for 6 unknowns

(3) Special case 2: constant k ,  and 

 5 unknowns: T, u, v, w, p, 5 eqs., see red box
 However, 4 unknowns: u, v, w, p, 4 eqs., give flow field,
see white box
 Velocity and temperature fields are uncoupled
52
2.8 The Boussinesq Approximation
 Free convection is driven by density change
 Can’t assume  = constant
 Alternate approach: the Boussinesq approximation
 Start with N-S equations for variable 

 2
 pg  p    V    V
DV  1
 (2.9)
Dt 3
 Assume:
(1)     in inertia term

(2)     in continuity,  .V  0
(2.9) becomes 
DV  2
  g   p    V (a)
Dt
53
( ) Reference state (far away from
 object) where
 DV 2
V  uniform,   V  0 (b)
Dt
Apply(a) at infinity , use (b)

  g  p  0 (c)
Subtract (c) from
 (a)
DV  2
       g   p  p    V (d)

Dt
(3) Express (    ) in term of temperature difference.
Introduce 
1   
    (2.16)
  T  p
Assume, for free convection  (T , p)   (T )
1 d
  (e)
  dT 54
For small T , is linear  (T )
1   
  (f)
  T  T

       T  T  (2.28)

Substitute (2.28) into (d)


DV  1 2
   g T  T    p  p   v  V (2.29)
Dt 

 Simplification leading to (2.29) is called the Boussinesq

approximation
 This eliminates density as a variable
 However, momentum and energy are coupled

55
2.9 Boundary Conditions
(1) No-slip condition
At surface, y  0

V ( x ,0, z , t )  0 (2.30a)
or
u( x ,0, z , t )  v ( x ,0, z , t )  w( x ,0, z , t )  0 (2.30b)
(2) Free stream condition
 Far away from object, assume uniform velocity
 Example:
Uniform u at y   :
u( x, , z , t )  V (2.31)

Uniform temperature:
T ( x, , z , t )  T (2.32)

(3) Surface thermal conditions

56
 (i) Specified temperature
T ( x ,0, z , t )  Ts (2.33)
(ii) Specified heat flux
T ( x ,0, z , t )
k  qo (2.34)
y
Example 2.4: Heated Thin Liquid Film Flow
Over an Inclined Surface
 Axial flow by gravity, thin y
film
 Uniform plate u
temperature To qo
To g
 Uniform flux qo at free x
surface 
 Write the velocity and thermal boundary conditions
57
(1) Observations
 No slip condition at inclined plate
 Free surface is parallel to the inclined plate
 Specified temperature at plate
 Specified flux at free surface
 Cartesian geometry
(2) Problem Definition.
Write the boundary conditions at two surfaces for u, v and T
(3) Solution Plan
 Select an origin and coordinate axes
 Identify the physical flow and thermal conditions at the
two surfaces
 Express conditions mathematically
58
(4) Plan Execution
(i) Assumptions
 Constant film thickness
 Negligible shearing stress at free surface
 Newtonian fluid.
(ii) Analysis.
Origin and coordinates as shown
(1) No slip condition at the inclined surface
u( x ,0)  0 (a)

v ( x ,0)  0 (b)
(2) Parallel streamlines
v ( x, H )  0 (c)
(3) Negligible shear at free surface: for Newtonian
fluid use (2.7a) 59
  v u 
 xy   yx      (2.7a)
  x y 
Apply (2.7a) at the free surface, use (c)
u( x , H )
0 (d)
y
(4) Specified temperature at plate:
T ( x ,0)  To (e)

(5) Specified heat flux at the free surface:

T ( x ,0, z , t )
k  qo (f)
y
(iii) Checking
Dimensional check: Each term of (f) has units of flux.
(5) Comments
60
  Must select origin and coordinates
 Why negative heat flux in (f)?

2.10 Non-dimensional Form of the Governing

Equations: Dynamic and Thermal
Similarity Parameters
 Rewrite equations in dimensionless form to:
 Identify governing parameters
 Plan experiments
 Present results
 Important factors in solutions
 Geometry
 Dependent variables: u, v, w, p, T
 Independent variables: x, y, z, t 61
  Constant quantities: p , T , Ts , V , L, g
 Fluid properties: c p , k, , , 
 Mapping results: dimensional vs. dimensionless

2.10.1 Dimensionless Variables

 To non-dimensionalize variables: use characteristic
quantities g, L, Ts , T , V
 Define dimensionless variables

 V  ( p  p )  (T  T )
V  p  T 
V  V 2 (Ts  T )
 x  y  z  V
x  y  z  t  t,
L L L L

g
g  (2.35)
g
62
        1 *
        (2.36a)
x y z Lx   
Ly Lz L

2 2 2 2   
       (2.36b)
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
x y z L x L y L z
1
  2
L2
D D V D
  (2.36c)
Dt D( Lt / V ) L Dt 


2.10.2 Dimensionless Form of Continuity

(2.35), (2.36) into (2.2c)
D *
   V  0 (2.37)
Dt *
63
2.10.3 Dimensionless Form of the Navier-
Stokes Equations of Motion
(2.35), (2.36) into (2.29)
*
DV Gr *  * 1 *2 
*
  2T g  P 
* *
 V* (2.38)
Dt Re Re
Re and Gr are dimensionless parameters (numbers)
g Tw  T L3 , Reynolds number
Gr  2
(2.39)
v
V L V L
Re   , Grashof number (2.40)
 v

64
2.10.4 Dimensionless Form of the Energy
Equation
Two special cases:
(i) Incompressible, constant conductivity
(2.35), (2.36) into (2.19)
DT  1 2  Ε 
  T   (2.41a)
Dt  RePr Re
Pr and E are dimensionless parameters
c p / v , Prandtl number
Pr    (2.42)
k k / c p 
V 2
Ε , Eckert number (2.43)
c p (Ts  T )
65
(2.35), (2.36) into (2.17) gives dimensionless
dissipation function  *
 u*  2  v *  2 
 *  2 *    *      (2.44)
  x   y  
 
(ii) Ideal gas, constant conductivity and viscosity
(2.35), (2.36) into (2.22)
DT * 1 Dp *
Ε *
*
  T Ε * 
*2 *
 (2.41b)
Dt RePr Dt Re

2.10.5 Significance of the Governing Parameters

Governing equations (2.37), (2.38), (2.41) are governed by
4 parameters: Re, Pr, Gr and E:
T *  f ( x* , y* , z* .t * ; Re , Pr , Gr , E ) (2.45)
66
NOTE
 Significance of parameters
 Reynolds number : viscous effect
 Prandtl number : property, heat transfer effect
 Grashof number : buoyancy effect (free convection)
 Eckert number: viscous dissipation: high speed flow and
very viscous fluids
 Dimensional form: solution depends on
 6 quantities: p , T ,Ts ,V ,L, g

 5 properties c p , k, , , and  affect the solution
 Dimensionless form: solution depends on
 4 parameters: Re, Pr, Gr and E

67
 Special cases:
 Negligible free convection: eliminate Gr
 Negligible dissipation eliminate E.
T *  f ( x* , y* , z* , t * ; Re , Pr ) (2.46)

 Significance of (2.45) and (2.46):

G ls bh
ts v a t e ha
s it p ats o

 Use (2.45) to:

 Plan experiments
 Carry out numerical computations
 Organize presentation of results
68
2.10.6 Heat Transfer Coefficient: The Nusselt
Number
 k T ( x ,0, z )
h (1.10)
(T  T )
s
y
Express in dimensionless form: use (2.30)
hx T * ( x* ,0 , z * )
  x* (2.47)
k  y*
 Local Nusselt number Nux
hx
Nu x  (2.48)
k
 Average Nusselt number Nu
hL
Nu  (2.49)
k
69
 where L
h   h( x )dx
1
(2.50)
L 0

Recall
T *  f ( x* , y* , z* .t * ; Re , Pr , Gr , E ) (2.45)

Thus
Nu x = f ( x* ; Re , Pr , Gr , E ) (2.51)

Special case: negligible buoyancy and viscous dissipation

Nu x = f ( x* ; Re , Pr ) (2.52)
For free convection with negligible dissipation we obtain
Nu x = f ( x* ; Gr , Pr ) (2.53)

For the average Nusselt number

hL
Nu   f ( Re , Pr ,Gr , E ) (2.54)
k 70
Example 2.5: Heat Transfer Coefficient for Flow
over Cylinders
Two experiments, different cylinders, same fluid:
Experiment # 1 Experiment # 2
D1 = 3 cm D2 = 5 cm
V1 = 15 m/s V2 = 98 m/s
h1  244 W/m2-oC h 2  144 W/m2-oC
Compare results with correlation equation
hD
Nu D   C ReD0.6 Pr n (a)
k
Are experimental data accurate?
(1) Observations
 Compare data for h1 and h2 correlation (a)
 h appears in definition of Nu 71
  Fluid, C and n are unknown, (a) does not give h
 Use (a) to determine ratio h1 / h2
(2) Problem Definition.
Determine h1 / h2 using data and correlation (a)
(3) Solution Plan.
Apply correlation (a) equation to determine h1 / h2 and
compare experimental data
(4) Plan Execution
(i) Assumptions
 Correlation (a) is valid for both experiments
 Fluid properties are constant
(ii) Analysis
VD
Use Re D  into (a)
 72
 0.6
hD  VD 
 C  Pr n (b)
k   
Solve for h
C k V 0.6 Pr n
h (c)
D 0.6 0.4

Apply (c) to the two experiments

CkV10.6 Pr n
h1  (d)
 0.6 D1 0.4
and
CkV 2 0.6 Pr n
h2  (e)
 0 .6 D 2 0 .4
Take ratio of (d) and (e)
0.6 0.4
h1  V1   D2 
    (f)
h2  V2   D1 
73
 (iii) Computations
Substitute data for V1 , V2 , D1 and D2 into (f)
0.6 0.4
h1  15(m s )   5(cm ) 
  0.4
h2  98 (m s )   3(cm )  (g)
 
Experimental data for ratio h1 / h2
 W 
h1 244  2 
  m - C   1.69 (h)
h2 144 W 
 2 
m - C
The two results are not the same
Conclusion: Incorrect experimental data
(iv) Checking
Dimensional check: units of (f) are correct
74
Limiting check: If V1 = V2 and D1 = D2 , then h 1  h2 .
This is confirmed by (f)
Qualitative check: If V is increased, h should increase.
This is substantiated by (c).
(5) Comments
 Critical assumption: correlation (a) applies to both
experiments
 Analysis suggests an error in the experimental data
 More conclusive check can be made if C, n and fluid are
known
2.11 Scale Analysis
Ptoa e
r r
(o
m wse o
75
Example 2.6: Melting Time of Ice Sheet
 Ice sheet thickness L
 At freezing temperature T f xi s
 One side is at To  T f L x Tf
l
 Other side is insulated
 Conservation of energy at
the melting front:
0 To
T dx i
k L (a)
x dt
xi  melting front location
L = latent heat of fusion
 Use scale analysis to determine total melt time
76
(1) Observations
 Entire sheet melts when xi  L
 Largest temperature difference is To  T f
 Time is in equation (a)
 Scaling of equation (a) should be useful
(2) Problem Definition
Determine the time t  t o when xi ( t )  L
(3) Solution Plan
Apply scale analysis to equation (a)
(4) Plan Execution
(i) Assumptions
 Sheet is perfectly insulated at x = L
 Liquid phase is stationary
77
 (ii) Analysis
Equation (a) is approximated by
T  xi
k L (b)
x t
Select scales for variables in (a)
Scale for T : T  (To  T f )
Scale for  x : x  L
Scale for  x i :  xi  L
Scale for t : t  t o
Substitute into (a)
(To  T f ) L
k  L
L to
Solve for melt time to
 L L2
to  (c)
k(To  T f )
78
 (iii) Checking
Dimensional check: Each term in (c) has units of time:

 ( kg/m 3 )L( J/kg ) L2 ( m 2 )

to  s
k ( W/m- C)(To  T f )( C)
o o

Limiting check:
(1) If L is infinite, melt time is infinite. Set L   in (c)
gives to  
(2) If thickness is zero, melt time should vanish. Set L = 0
in (c) gives to  0
Qualitative check:
Expect t o to:
Directly proportional to mass, L and L, and
Inversely proportional to k (To  T f )
This is confirmed by solution (c) 79
(5) Comments
 t o is estimated without solving governing equations
 Exact quasi-steady solution
 L L2
to  (d)
2k(To  T f )
 Scaling answer is within a factor of 2

80