Chapter-4

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

 Introduction
• The cathode ray oscilloscope is probably the most versatile tool for the
development of electronic circuits and systems.
• It allows the amplitude of electrical signals, whether they be voltage,
current, power, etc., to be displayed primarily as a function of time.
• The oscilloscope depends on the movement of an electron beam, which is
then made visible by allowing the beam to impinge on a phosphor surface,
which produces a visible spot.
• The X axis of the oscilloscope is deflected at a constant rate, relative to
time, and the vertical or Y axis is deflected in response to an input
stimulus such as voltage.
• This produces the time-dependent variation of input voltage, which is very
important to the design and development of electronic circuit.
Oscilloscope block diagram
 Cont.
A general purpose oscilloscope consists of the following parts:
1. Cathode ray tube
2. Vertical amplifier
3. Delay line
4. Time base generator
5. Horizontal amplifier
6. Trigger circuit
7. Power supply
 Description
• Cathode Ray Tube - It is the heart of the oscilloscope. When the electrons
emitted by the electron gun strikes the phosphor screen, a visual signal is
displayed on the CRT.
• Vertical Amplifier - The input signals are amplified by the vertical
amplifier. Usually, the vertical amplifier is a wide band amplifier which
passes the entire band of frequencies.
• Delay Line - As the name suggests, this circuit is used to delay the signal
for a period of time in the vertical section of CRT. The input signal is not
applied directly to the vertical plates because the part of the signal gets
lost, when the delay time is not used. Therefore, the input signal is
delayed by a period of time.
• Time Base (Sweep) Generator - Time base circuit uses a uni-junction
transistor, which is used to produce the sweep. The saw tooth voltage
produced by the time base circuit is required to deflect the beam in the
horizontal section. The spot is deflected by the saw tooth voltage at a
constant time dependent rate.
 Cont.
• Horizontal Amplifier - The saw tooth voltage produced by the time base
circuit is amplified by the horizontal amplifier before it is applied to
horizontal deflection plates.
• Trigger Circuit - The signals which are used to activate the trigger circuit
are converted to trigger pulses for the precision sweep operation whose
amplitude is uniform. Hence input signal and the sweep frequency can be
synchronized.
• Power supply - The voltages required by CRT, horizontal amplifier, and
vertical amplifier are provided by the power supply block. It is classified
into two types -
• (1) Negative high voltage supply
• (2) Positive low voltage supply
• The voltage of negative high voltage supply is from -1000V to -1500V. The
range of positive voltage supply is from 300V to 400V.
 Cathode Ray Tube
• https://youtu.be/XkCxEQF1zXA
 Electrostatic Focusing

• Electrostatic lens consists of three anodes, with the middle anode at a

lower potential than the other two electrodes.
• In figure two anodes and its electrostatic lines and equipotential surfaces
are shown. Spreading of electric field is caused because of repulsion
between electric lines. If equipotential lines are drawn, as shown in
figure, they would bulge at the center of the two anodes. As we know
that electrons move in a direction opposite to that of electric field lines
and equipotential surfaces are perpendicular to the electric field lines so
force on the electron is exerted in the direction normal to the
equipotential surface.

• Electrons entering at the centre line of the two
From figure
V1T = V1 sin θ1,
V2T = V2 sin θ2
But V1T = V2T
V1 sin θ1 = V2 sin θ2
Or V2/V1 = sin θ1 / sin θ2
Cont.
anodes experience no force but electrons
displaced from the centre line experience a
force normal to the direction of equipotential
surface and deflect, as shown in figure. An equi
potential surface is shown, in which an electron
with velocity V1 and at an angle θ. to the
normal of equipotential surface enters and
experiences a force in a direction normal to the
equipotential surface. Thus the velocity of the
electron increases to V2. This force on the
electron is exerted in the direction normal to
equipotential surface so only the normal
component of electron velocity V1N increases to
V2N and the tangential component of velocity
V1T remains the same.
 Electrostatic Deflection
• figure below shows a general arrangement for electrostatic deflection in
cro. There are two parallel plates with a potential applied between. These
plates produced a uniform an electrostatic field in the Y direction. Thus
any electron entering the field will experience a force in the Y direction
and will be accelerated in that direction. There is no force either in X
direction or Z direction and hence there will be no acceleration of
electrons in these directions. Now we will derive the equation
of electrostatic deflection in crt tube.
Equation:-
Let
E0 = voltage of pre-accelerating anode ; V
e = charge of an electron; C
m = mass of electron ; kg
Vox = velocity of electron when entering the field of deflecting plates; m/s
Ed = potential between deflecting plates; V
d = distance between deflecting plates; m
ld = Length of deflecting plates; m
L = distance between screen and the centre of the deflecting plates; m
D = deflecting of electron beam on the screen in Y direction

The loss of potential energy(P.E) when the electron moves from cathode to accelerating
anode;
P.E = e Ea

The gain in kinetic energy(K.E.) by an electron

K.E = (½)mV²ox
 Cont.
Equating the two energies, we get
Vox = (2eEa/m)¹⁄²
This is the velocity of the electron in the X direction when it enters the
deflecting that plates. The velocity in the X direction remains the same throughout the
passage of electrons through the deflecting plates as there is no force acting in this
direction.

The electric field intensity in the Y direction;

εy = Ed/d
Force acting on an electron in Y direction;
Fy = eεy = eEd/d
Suppose ay is the acceleration of the electron in Y direction, therefore,
Fy = may
ay = eεy/m
As there is no initial velocity in the Y direction the displacement y at any instant t in
the Y direction is;
y = (½)ayt² = (½)(eεy/m)t²
 Cont.
As the velocity in X direction is constant, the displacement in X direction is given by,
x = Vox.t
∴ t = x/Vox
Submitting the above value t ;

y = (½)(eεy/m)(x/Vox)²
This is the equation of a parabola. The slope at any point (x,y) is
dy/dx = eεy/mV²ox
Put x = ld in above equation we get the value of .

Tan θ = (eεy/mV²ox).ld = (e.Ed.ld)/mdV²ox

After leaving the Electrostatic deflection plates, electrons travel in a straight line. The straight line of
travel of electrons is tangent to the parabola at x=ld and this tangent intersects the X-axis at point O. The
location of this point is given by,

x = y/tan θ = (eεy/2mV²ox).l²d/(eεy/mV²ox).ld = ld/2

The Apparent origin is thus at the centre of deflection plates. The deflection D on the screen is given by,

D = L tan θ = L.(e.Ed.ld)/mdV²ox

Substituting the value of V²ox = 2eEa/m in above equation, we get

D = L.(e.Ed.ld)/md × m/2eEa = L.Ed.ld/2dEa

 Fluorescent Screen
• The light produced by the screen does not disappear immediately when
bombardment by electron ceases, i.e., when the signal becomes zero. The time
period for which the trace remains on the screen after the signal becomes zero is
known as persistence. The persistence may be as short as a few microseconds, or
as long as tens of seconds or even minutes.
• Medium persistence traces are mostly used for general purpose applications.
• Long persistence traces are used in the study of transients. Long persistence helps
in the study of transients since the trace is still seen on the screen after the
transient has disappeared.
• Short persistence is needed for extremely high speed phenomena.
• The screen is coated with fluorescent material called phosphor which emits light
when bombarded by electrons. There are various phosphors available which differ
in color, persistence and efficiency.
• One of the common phosphor is willemite, which is zinc, orthosilicate, ZnO+SiO2,
with traces of manganese. This produces the familiar greenish trace. Other useful
screen materials include compounds of zinc, cadmium, magnesium and silicon.
 Cont.
• The kinetic energy of the electron beam is converted into both light and
heat energy when it hits the screen. The heat so produced gives rise in
phosphor burn which is damaging and sometimes destructive. This
degrades the light output of phosphor and sometimes may cause
complete phosphor destruction. Thus the phosphor must have high burn
resistance to avoid accidental damage.
• Similarly the phosphor screen is provided with an aluminum layer called
aluminizing the cathode ray tube.

These Aluminizing layers serve three functions:

• To avoid buildup of charges on the phosphor which tend to slow down the
electrons and limits the brightness.
• It serves as a light scatter. When the beam strikes the phosphor with
aluminized layer, the light emitted back into the tube is reflected back
towards the viewer which increases the brightness.
• The aluminum layer acts as a heat sink for the phosphor and thus reduces
the chances of the phosphor burning.
 Cont.
 Phosphor screen characteristics
• Many phosphor materials having different excitation times and colors as well as different
phosphorescence times are available.
• The type P1, P2, P11 or P31 are the short persistence phosphors and are used for the general purpose
oscilloscopes.
• Medical oscilloscopes require longer phosphor decay and hence phosphors like P7 and P39 are preferred
for such applications
• Very slow displays like radar require long persistence phosphor to maintain sufficient flicker free picture.
Such phosphors are P19, P26 and P33.
• The phosphors P19, P26, P33 have low burn resistance. The phosphors P1, P2, P4, P7, P11 have medium
burn resistance while P15,P31 have high burn resistance.

 Why P31 is commonly used?

Out of these varieties, the materials P31 is used commonly for general purpose oscilloscopes due to following
characteristics:
• It gives color to which human eye response is maximum.
• It gives short persistence required to avoid multiple image display.
• It has high burn resistance to avoid the accidental damage.
• Its illumination level is high.
• It provides high writing speed.

Note: the light output of a fluorescent screen is proportional to the number of bombarding electrons, i.e., to
the beam current.
Delay line
Lumped parameter delay line
Distributed parameter delay line
Cont.
 Dual trace or Multiple trace
• Two different input signals are used i.e Channels A & B with attenuators
and preamplifiers. A delay line is used between electronic switch &
vertical amplifier that alternately connects the input to main vertical
amplifiers
 Alternate mode

• The alternate mode is illustrated in

the figure below. In this
the electronic switch alternates
between channels A and B, letting
each through for one cycle of the
horizontal sweep.
• The display is blanked during the fly
back and hold-off periods, as in a
conventional oscilloscope. Provided
the sweep speed is much greater
than the decay time of the CRT
phosphor, the screen will show a
stable display of both the waveform
at channels A and B. The alternate
mode cannot be used for displaying
very low frequency signals.
 Chopped mode

• The chopped operating mode of the

electronic switch is shown in the below figure
waveforms of a dual trace
oscilloscope operating in chopped mode. In
this mode, the electronic switch free runs at a
high frequency of the order of 100 kHz to 500
kHz. The result is that small segments from
channels A and B are connected alternately to
the vertical amplifier and displayed on the
screen.
• Provided the chopping rate is much faster
than the horizontal sweep rate, the display
will show a continuous line for each channel.
If the sweep rate approaches the chopping
rate then the individual segments will be
visible, and the alternate mode should now
be used.
 Oscilloscope Probes and Transducers
• The simplest types of probe (one can hardly call it a probe) is the test lead.
Test leads are simply convenient lengths of wire for connecting the CRO
input to the point of observation. At the CRO end, they usually terminate
with lugs, banana tips or other tips to fit the input jacks of the scope, and
at the other end have a crocodile clip or any other convenient means for
connection to the electronic circuit.
• Since a CRO has high input impedance and high sensitivity, the test leads
should be shielded to avoid hum pickup, unless the scope is connected to
low impedance high level circuits.
• Although the input impedances of most CROs are relatively very high
compared to the circuits where they are connected, it is often desirable to
increase their impedance to avoid loading of the circuits or causing
unstable effects.
 Cont.
• The input capacitance of the scope, plus the stray capacitance of the test leads,
may be just enough to cause a sensitive circuit to break into Fig. 7.44 me Isolation
Probe oscillation when the CRO is connected. This effect can be prevented by an
isolation probe made by placing a carbon resistor in series with the test lead, as
shown in Fig. 7.44.

• A slight reduction in the amplitude of the waveform and a slight change in the
wave shape occurs with this probe. To avoid this possibility, a high impedance
compensated probe, called a low capacitance probe or a 10 : 1 probe, is used.
• Active probes are designed to provide an efficient method of coupling high
frequency, fast rise time signals to the CRO input. Usually active probes have very
high input impedance, with less attenuation than passive probes. Active devices
may be diodes, FETs, BJTs, etc.
• Active probes are more expensive and bulky than passive probes, but they are
useful for small signal measurements, because their attenuation is less.
 Active probes
• Active Probes Using FETs
The FET is used as the active element to amplify the
input signal. Although the voltage gain of the FET follower
circuit shown is unity, the follower circuit provides a power
gain so that the input impedance can be increased. To be
effective the FET must be mounted directly in the voltage
probe tip, so that the capacitance of the interconnecting
cable can be eliminated. This requires that the power for the
FET be supplied from the oscilloscope to the FET in the probe
tip. The FET voltage follower drives a coaxial cable, but
instead of the cable connecting directly to the high input
impedance of the oscilloscope, it is terminated in its
characteristic impedance.
• There is no signal attenuation between the FET Amplifier
and the probe tip. The range of the signals that can be
handled by the FET probe is limited to the dynamic range
of the FET amplifier and is typically less than a few volts.
To handle a larger dynamic range,
external attenuators are added at the probe tip. Active
probes have limited use because the FET probe effectively
becomes an FET attenuator. Therefore, oscilloscopes are
typically used with a 10 to 1 attenuator probe.
 Current Probe
• They provide a method of inductively coupling the signal to the CRO input, so that
a direct electrical connection to the test circuit is not required.
• The current probe consists of a sensor, a coax cable & a termination circuit a
shown in Fig.
 Cont.
SPLIT-CORE
• Passive current probe, the most popular type, can be opened & clipped around a
conductor (see Fig. 17) whose current is to be measured.
• The current sensing device of this probe is a “Current Transformer” of split core
design, consisting a stationary U-piece & a Movable flat piece.
• A multi –turn coil of approximately 25 turns is wound on one leg of the ferrite core
to form the secondary turn primary.
• The input signal to the probe is the current in the conductor under test; the o/p
signal is the voltage developed across the transformer secondary.
• This current probe senses only the changes in current & hence can be used
only to measure A C Signal.
• When correctly terminated, the sensitivity of this probe is of the order of
10ma/mv.
• The transformer o/p voltage is coupled from the probe head to the termination via
a coaxial cable.
• The termination circuitry can be passive or active, depending on the kind of probe
generally the termination of the coax is in its characteristics impedance.
• Additional circuitry to improve the response characteristics of the probe is also
contained in the termination box.
Digital Storage Oscilloscope
 Working
• The input signal is applied to the amplifier and attenuator section.
• The oscilloscope uses same type of amplifier and attenuator circuitry as
used in the conventional oscilloscopes.
• The attenuated signal is then applied to the vertical amplifier.
• To digitize the analog signal, analog to digital (A/D) converter is used.
• The output of the vertical amplifier is applied to the A/D converter
section.
• The successive approximation type of A/D converter is most oftenly used
in the digital storage oscilloscopes.
• The sampling rate and memory size are selected depending upon the
duration & the waveform to be recorded.
• Once the input signal is sampled, the A/D converter digitizes it.
• The signal is then captured in the memory.
• Once it is stored in the memory, many manipulations are possible as
memory can be readout without being erased.
 The digital storage oscilloscope has
three modes
1. Roll mode
2. Store mode
3. Hold or save mode
 Advantages
i) It is easier to operate and has more capability.
ii) The storage time is infinite.
iii) The display flexibility is available. The number of traces that can be stored
and recalled depends on the size of the memory.
iv) The cursor measurement is possible.
v) The characters can be displayed on screen along with the waveform
which can indicate waveform information such as minimum, maximum,
frequency, amplitude etc.
vi) The X-Y plots, B-H curve, P-V diagrams can be displayed.
vii) The pretrigger viewing feature allows to display the waveform before
trigger pulse.
viii) Keeping the records is possible by transmitting the data to computer
system where the further processing is possible.
ix) Signal processing is possible which includes translating the raw data into
finished information e.g. computing parameters of a captured signal like r.m.s.
value, energy stored etc.
Applications