Chapter 1

Aircraft Design
Fundamentals
 Overview
1. Introduction to Design
2. Engineering Design
3. Design Project Planning
4. Decision Making
5. Feasibility Analysis
6. Tort of Negligence

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 2

 1. Design process
• Analysis: the process of predicting the
performance or behavior of a design
candidate.
• Evaluation: the process of
performance calculation and
comparing the predicted performance
of each feasible design candidate to
determine the deficiencies.
Synthesis: the creative process of
putting known things together into
new and more useful combinations.
• A design process requires both
integration and iteration.
Figure 1.1. Interrelationship between synthesis, analysis, and evaluation
Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 3
Two main groups of design activities
1. Problem solving through mathematical calculations
2. Choosing a preferred one among alternatives.

Figure 1.2. Two main groups of design activities in aircraft design

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 4

 Traditional/innovative
1. The traditional engineering education is
structured to emphasize on mathematics,
physical, sciences, and engineering sciences.
2. The CDIO initiative is defined to be an
innovative educational framework for
producing the next generation of engineers.

www.cdio.org

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 5

 CDIO
• Conceive
• Design
• Implement
• Operate

Grumman F-14D Tomcat-2

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 6

 Fundamental disciplines

Figure 1.3. Aircraft design required tools and expertise

 The first four items are primary expertise areas of aeronautical

engineering.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 7

 2. Engineering Design
• Design is the central activity of the engineering profession.
• There is a clear distinction between classical mathematics
and science problem solving techniques, and design
operation.
• Engineering design is the process of devising a system,
component, or process to meet desired needs. It is a
decision making process (often iterative), in which the basic
sciences and mathematics and engineering sciences are
applied to convert resources optimally to meet a stated
objectives. Among the fundamental elements of the design
process are the establishment of objectives and criteria,
synthesis, analysis, construction, testing, and evaluation
(ABET).
• ABET: Accreditation Board of Engineering and Technology

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 8

Engineering design block diagram
It represents the road from customer need to design output including a feedback
based on evaluation.

Figure 1.4. Engineering design block diagram

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 9

 Problem statement

Figure 1.6. Three elements of a problem statement

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 10

 Continues…
 A goal statement is a brief, general, and ideal response to the
need statement.
 The objectives are quantifiable expectations of performance
which identify those performance characteristics of a design that
are of most interest to the customer.
 includes a description of conditions under which a
design must perform.
 Restrictions of function of form are called constraints; they limit
our freedom to design.
 permissible conditions of design features and permissible
range of design and performance parameters.

11
 Benchmarking
• The goal is usually revised through a process
called benchmarking.
• Benchmarking is to explicitly comparing your
design to that of the competitor which does
the best job for satisfying the customer
requirements.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 12

 Criteria
• The value-free descriptors associated with
each objective are referred to as criteria.

Bell-Boeing MV-22B Osprey (Courtesy of A J Best)

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 13
 Typical design objectives
No Objective Basis for measurement Criterion Units
1 Inexpensive in market Unit manufacturing cost Manufacturing cost Dollar
2 Inexpensive in operation Fuel consumption per km Operating cost Liter/km
3 Light Total weight Weight N
4 Small size Geometry Dimensions m
5 Fast Speed of operation Performance km/hr
6 Maintainable Man-hour to maintain Maintainability Man-hour
7 Producible Required technology for manufacturing Manufacturability -
8 Recyclable Amount of hazardous or non-recyclable materials Disposability kg
9 Maneuverable Turn radius Maneuverability m
10 Comfortable Ergonomic standards Human factor -
11 Airworthiness Safety standards Safety -
12 No human casualty in operation Level of injury to passengers in a mishap Crashworthiness -

Table 1.1. Typical design objectives and related criteria for a vehicle design project

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 14

 Design requirements
• Design products are developed and created to
satisfy needs and wants and provide utility to
the customer.
• The customer needs have to be translated into
design requirements through goal and
objectives.
• Design requirements is mainly includes
customer requirements plus engineering
requirements.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 15

Status of various design features

Figure 1.7. Status of various design features during design progress

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 16
 3. Design Project Planning
• A Gantt chart has three main features:
1. It informs the manager and chief designer of
what tasks are assigned and who has been
assigned to them.
2. It indicates the estimated dates on which tasks
are assumed to start and end, and it represents
graphically the estimated ration of the task.
3. It indicates the actual dates on which tasks were
started and completed and pictures this
information.
Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 17
 A typical Gantt chart
Job/Task Week/Month/Year
Job Task January February March April May June
2013 2013 2013 2013 2013 2013
Problem definition Identification of design
requirements
Feasibility analysis
Conceptual design Configuration design
Conceptual Design
Review
Preliminary design Calculations
Preliminary Design
Review
Detail design Wing design
Tail design
Fuselage design
Propulsion system
Landing gear
Equipment/subsystems
Integration
Wind tunnel testing
Weight distribution
Performance/stability
analysis
Control surfaces design
Evaluation and Test
Review
Flight Testing Production of prototype
Flight Tests
Critical Design Critical Design Review
Review
Certification Certification

Table 1.2. A typical Gantt chart for the design of a light single-seat aircraft
Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 18
19
 Airbus A-380

Figure 1.8. Airbus A-380, the newest Airbus production (Courtesy of Anne Deus)
Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 20
 4. Decision Making
• Any engineering selection must be supported
by logical and scientific reasoning and
analysis.
• The main challenge in decision making is that
there are usually multiple criteria along with a
risk associated with each one.
• There are no straight forward governing
equations to be solved mathematically.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 21

 A typical decision making problem for
a traveler
No Design Criteria
Option Cost (of Safety Performance (Maximum
(Vehicle) Operation) Speed)
1 Bicycle 1 1 7
2 Motorbike 2 7 3
3 Automobile 5 6 4
4 Bus 3 5 5
5 Train 4 3 2
6 Ship 6 4 6
7 Aircraft 7 2 1

Table 1.3. A typical multi-criteria decision making problem (1 is the most desirable)

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 22

 Criteria
• Three common criteria in most engineering
design projects are:
1. Costs
2. Performance
3. Safety (and reliability).

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 23

 Five steps for making the best
decisions
• Step 1: Specify all the alternatives by using
brainstorming techniques.
• Step 2: identify and establishing criteria. These
criteria serve later as the guidelines for
developing the options.
• Step 3: define metrics(referring to the criteria
performance measures and their units. )
• Step 4: deal with criteria that have unequal
significance.
• Step 5: Select the alternative which gains the
highest numerical value.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 24

 Three examples
No Common Scale Criteria metrics
Preferred level Value Example 1: Example 2: Example 3:
Length (m) max speed (km/hr) Mass (kg)
1 Perfect 10 35 60 500
2 Excellent 9 29.1 52 550
3 Very good 8 25.7 41 620
4 Good 7 21.4 32 680
5 Satisfactory 6 18.4 27 740
6 Adequate 5 16.6 21 790
7 Tolerable 4 12.7 17 830
8 Poor 3 8.4 17 910
9 Very poor 2 6.7 14 960
10 Inadequate 1 4.3 10 1020
11 Useless 0 2.5 7 1100

Table 1.4. Common scale and criteria metrics and three examples

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 25

 Figures of merit
• Some design references employ the term
“Figures of merit” instead of criteria.
• Figure of merit (FOM) is a numerical quantity
based on one or more characteristics of a
system or device that represents a measure of
efficiency or effectiveness.
• A figure of merit is a quantity used to
characterize the performance of a device,
system or method, relative to its alternatives.
Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 26
 5. Feasibility Analysis
• In this phase, the designer addresses the
fundamental question of whether to proceed
with the selected concept.
• Feasibility study distinguishes between a
creative design concept and an imaginary
idea.
• Feasibility evaluation determines the degree
to which each concept alternative satisfies
design criteria.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 27

Feasibility analysis process

Figure 1.9. Feasibility analysis process

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 28
 Questions
In the feasibility analysis, the answers to the
following questions are sought:

• Is the current design concept feasible?

• Are the goals achievable, Are the objectives
realistic, or Are the design requirements
meetable?

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 29

 Boeing 787 Dreamliner
The Boeing 787 Dreamliner is the first commercial
transport aircraft with full composite structure.

Figure 1.10. Boeing 787 Dreamliner (Courtesy of A J Best)

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 30

 6. Tort of Negligence
• The issue of legal liability is crucial to an
aircraft design engineer.
• Liability is basically part of system of civil law.
• Liability law belongs to that branch of civil law
known as torts.
• The area of tort law known as negligence
involves harm caused by carelessness, not
intentional harm.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 31

 Murphy’s Law

‘If any event can happen, it will

happen; or anything that can go wrong
will go wrong.’

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 32

 For instance
• These accidents were clearly the designer’s fault
to expect such events:
1. the first F-18 fighter unacceptable field
performance which was traced to an error in the
calculation of aerodynamic forces in ground
effect.
2. the Fowler flaps crunching in the first flight of
General Dynamics strike aircraft F-111A, when
pilot engaged the wing sweep system to sweep
the wing aft after lading.
Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 33
Four aircraft-related tragic accidents cases
Case 1: United States versus “Weber Aircraft Corp” in
1984.
Case 2: Jack King and sixty-nine European plaintiffs versus
“Cessna Aircraft Company” in a tragic plane crash that
occurred at Linate Airport in Milan, Italy, on October 8,
2001.
Case 3: Starting in 1991, a number of accidents and
incidents involving the Boeing 737 were the result of the
airplanes' unexpected movement of their rudders.
Case 4: A Continental Airlines Boeing 737 went off the
runway during takeoff from Denver International Airport
in Colorado, plunging into a ravine and shearing off its
landing gear and left engine (Dec. 20, 2008).

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 34

 Tupolev Tu-154

A Tupolev Tu-154 crashed due to poor weather conditions (Courtesy of Augusto Gomez R)

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 35

 An Ilyushin Il-76

An Ilyushin Il-76 freighter which caught fire on the ground (Courtesy of Serghei Podlesnii)
Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 36
 109 rule
• This rule states that one death in 1000,000,000
aircraft travelers is accepted.
• Even one human death is great disaster to a
community, but there are stupidity and
negligence that happens sometimes which lead
to a deadly crash.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 37

 Comparison
• About 300 people are killed every year in
aviation related accidents in the USA;
while about 45,000 are killed in car
accidents.
• Therefore, the aircraft is much safer than
car, and the air travel is 150 times safer
than road travel.

Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 38

 References
1. Robbins S. P., Coulter M., Management, 10th edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2008
2. Dieter G., Schmidt L., Engineering Design, McGraw-Hill 4th
edition, 2008
3. Hyman B., Fundamentals of Engineering Design, Second
edition, Prentice Hall, 2003
4. Eggert R. J., Engineering Design, Pearson Prentice Hall,
2005
5. www.abet.org
6. Blanchard B. S., and Fabrycky W. J., Systems Engineering
and Analysis, Fourth edition, Prentice Hall, 2006
7. Roskam J., Roskam’s Airplanes War Stories, DAR Corp.,
2006
Chapter 1. Aircraft Design Fundamentals 39