Determinants

Determinants
Introduction

Every square matrix has associated with it a scalar called

its determinant.
Given a matrix A, we use det(A) or |A| to designate its
determinant.
We can also designate the determinant of matrix A by
replacing the brackets by vertical straight lines. For
example,

2 1 2 1
A  det( A) 
 0 3 0 3

Determinants
※ The determinant is NOT a matrix operation
※ The determinant is a kind of information
extracted from a square matrix to reflect some
characteristics of that square matrix
※ The motives to calculate determinants are to
identify the characteristics of matrices and thus
facilitate the comparison between matrices
since it is impossible to investigate or compare
matrices entry by entry
and
To solve simultaneous algebraic equations
using determinants.

Determinants
3.
Determinants

If A = aij  is a square matrix of order 1,

then |A| = | a11 | = a11

a11 a12 
If A =   is a square matrix of order 2, then
a a
 21 22 

a11 a12
|A| = = a11a22 – a21a12
a21 a22

 Note:
1. For every SQUARE matrix, there is a real number associated with this
matrix and called its determinant
2. It is common practice to omit the matrix brackets
Determinants
• Historically speaking, the use of determinants
arose from the recognition of special patterns
that occur in the solutions of linear systems:

a11 x1  a12 x2  b1

a21 x1  a22 x2  b2
b1a22  b2 a12 b2 a11  b1a21
 x1  and x2 
a11a22  a21a12 a11a22  a21a12

 Note:
1. x1 and x2 have the same denominator, and this quantity is called
the determinant of the coefficient matrix A
2. There is a unique solution if a11a22 – a21a12 = |A| ≠ 0

Determinants
3.
Example

4 -3
Solution : = 4 × 5 - 2 × -3  = 20 + 6 = 26
2 5

Determinants
• Ex. 1: The determinant of a matrix of
order 2
2 3
 2(2)  1(3)  4  3  7
1 2

2 1
 2(2)  4(1)  4  4  0
4 2

0 3/ 2
 0(4)  2(3 / 2)  0  3  3
2 4

 Note: The determinant of a matrix can be positive, zero, or negative

Determinants
3.7
Def: Minors

Let A =[aij] be an nxn matrix . The ijth minor of A ( or

the minor of aij) is the determinant Mij of the (n-1)x(n-
1) submatrix after you delete the ith row and the jth
column of A.

Example Find M 23 , M 32 , M 33 ,

1 0 2
A  4 3 1
3 5 1

Determinants
 1 0 2
A  4 3 1 1 2 
3 5 1 M 32  
4 1 

1 0 1 0 
M 23    M 33   
3 5   4 3 

Determinants
Minors

-1 4
If A =  , then
2 3

M11 = Minor of a11 = 3, M12 = Minor of a12 = 2

M21 = Minor of a21 = 4, M22 = Minor of a22 = -1

Determinants
Minors
 4 7 8
If A = -9 0 0 , then
 2 3 4

M11 = Minor of a11 = determinant of the order 2 × 2 square

sub-matrix is obtained by leaving first
row and first column of A
0 0
= =0
3 4

4 7
Similarly, M23 = Minor of a23 = =12 -14 = -2
2 3

4 8
M32 = Minor of a32 = = 0+72 = 72 etc.
-9 0

Determinants
Cofactors

Cij = Cofactor of aij in A = -1

i+ j
Mij ,

where Mij is minor of aij in A

Determinants
 Cofactors
Definition 1: Given a matrix A, a minor is the
determinant of any square submatrix of A.
Definition 2: Given a matrix A=[aij] , the cofactor of
the element aij is a scalar obtained by multiplying
together the term (-1)i+j and the minor obtained from
A by removing the ith row and the jth column.
In other words, the cofactor Cij is given by Cij =
(1)i+jMij.
For example,
 a11 a12 a13 
A  a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33 
Determinants
 Expansion by Cofactors
To find the determinant of a matrix A of arbitrary order,
a) Pick any one row or any one column of the matrix;
b) For each element in the row or column chosen, find its
cofactor;
c) Multiply each element in the row or column chosen by its
cofactor and sum the results. This sum is the determinant of
the matrix.
In other words, the determinant of A is given by
ith row
expansion

jth column
expansion

Determinants
Cofactors

 4 7 8
A = -9 0 0 
 2 3 4

0 0
C11 = Cofactor of a11 = (–1)1 + 1 M11 = (–1)1 +1 =0
3 4

4 7
C23 = Cofactor of a23 = (–1)2 + 3 M23 =  2
2 3

4 8
C32 = Cofactor of a32 = (–1)3 + 2M32 = - = - 72 etc.
-9 0

Determinants
Example 1: 1 2 3
We can compute the determinant
T  4 5 6
7 8 9
by expanding along the first row,

5 6 1 2 4 6 13 4 5
T  1    2    3  
11
 3  12  9  0
8 9 7 9 7 8

Or expand down the second column:

4 6 2 2 1 3 3 2 1 3
T  2     5    8  
1 2
 12  60  48  0
7 9 7 9 4 6

Example 2: (using a row or column with many zeroes)

1 5 0
23 1 5
2 1 1  1    16
3 1
3 1 0
Determinants
Example

Solution :
[Expanding along first row]

2 3 -5
1 -2 7 -2 7 1
7 1 -2 =2 -3 + -5
4 1 -3 1 -3 4
-3 4 1

= 2 1 + 8  - 3 7 - 6  - 5 28 + 3 
= 18 - 3 - 155
= -140

Determinants
• Evaluate the determinant of the
following matrix:

0 4 0 3
 1 1 5 2  With three 0’s in the third column, we
  will expand along the third column.
 1 2 0 6
3 0 0 1 

0 4 0 3
0 4 3
1 1 5 2 23
A  ( 1) (5) 1 2 6
1 2 0 6
3 0 1
3 0 0 1
Determinants
• We are evaluating the determinant

0 4 0 3
0 4 3
1 1 5 2
A  (1) 23 (5) 1 2 6
1 2 0 6
3 0 1
3 0 0 1

 2 6 4 3 4 3 
 (1)(5)  0 1 3 
 0 1 0 1 2 6 
 (5)[(1)(4)  3(18)]  5(50)  250
Determinants
 0 2 1 
A   3 1 2   det( A)  ?
 4 0 1 

Sol:
1 2 1 2 3 2
11
C11  (1)  1 C12  (1)  (1)(5)  5
0 1 4 1

1 3 3 1
C13  (1) 4
4 0
 det( A)  a11C11  a12C12  a13C13
 (0)( 1)  (2)(5)  (1)( 4)
 14
Determinants 3.20
Determinants
Find the value of the following determinants

A B
= =

C D
= =

Determinants
Properties of Determinants
1. The value of a determinant remains unchanged, if its
rows and columns are interchanged.

a1 b1 c1 a1 a2 a3
a2 b2 c2 = b1 b2 b3 i.e. A  A '
a3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3

2. If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are interchanged,

then the value of the determinant is changed by minus sign.

a1 b1 c1 a2 b2 c2
a2 b2 c2 = - a1 b1 c1  Applying R2  R1 
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Determinants
Properties (Con.)

3. If all the elements of a row (or column) is multiplied by a

non-zero number k, then the value of the new determinant
is k times the value of the original determinant.

which also implies

a1 b1 c1 ma1 mb1 mc1

1
a2 b2 c2 = a2 b2 c2
m
a3 b3 c3 a3 b3 c3

Determinants
Properties (Con.)

4. If each element of any row (or column) consists of

two or more terms, then the determinant can be
expressed as the sum of two or more determinants.

5. The value of a determinant is unchanged, if any row

(or column) is multiplied by a number and then added
to any other row (or column).

Determinants
Properties (Con.)

6. If any two rows (or columns) of a determinant are

identical, then its value is zero.

7. If each element of a row (or column) of a determinant is zero,

then its value is zero.

Determinants
Properties (Con.)

a 0 0
 
8 Let A = 0 b 0 be a diagonal matrix, then
0 0 c 

a 0 0
A =0 b 0  abc
0 0 c

Determinants
Prop 1: interchanging two rows or column
Row and
columns)
Column Properties

2 0 0  3  2 3 0 0
 0 1 0 0  0
Example
A  0 0  1
7 3 5 B
4 7 5 3 4
   
 6 2 2 4
 6 4 2 2
det A   det B

Example 2 0 0  3  6 2 2 4
 0 1 0 0   0 1 0 0 
A C
7 4 3 5 7 4 3 5
   
 6 2 2 4 2 0 0  3
Determinants
det A   det C
Row and Column Properties
Prop 2: two rows (or columns) are identical

Example  2 3 0  3
0
B
7
1 0 1  det B  0
5 3 5
 
 6 4 2 4

Example  6 2 2 4
 0 1 0
det C  0
0
C
7 4 3 5
 
 6 2 2 4

Determinants
Row and
Prop 3: Column
(k) i-th Properties
row + j-th row (k) i-th col + j-th col

2C2 +C4 = new C4

2 0 0  3 2 0 0  3
 0 1 0 0   0 1 0  2
Example A B
7 4 3 5 7 4 3 13 
   
 6 2 2 4  6 2 2 8

det A  det B

4R1 +R4 = new R4

Example 2 0 0  3 2 0 0  3
 0 1 0 0  0  1 0 0 
A C
7 4 3 5 7 4 3 5
   
 6 2 2 4 2 2 2  8
Determinants
det A  det C
Row and Column Properties
Prop 4: (k) i-th row (k) i-th col

Example 2 0 0  3 2 0 0  3
 0 1 0 0   0 5
A 0 0 
7 3 5 B
4  7 20 3 5
   
 6 2 2 4
 6 10 2 4
det B  (5) det A

Example 2 0 0  3  2 0 0  3
 0 1 0 0   0 1 0 0 
A C
7 4 3 5  7 4 3 5
   
 6 2 2 4  18 6 6 12 
Determinants
det C  (3) det A
Prop 5: i-th row B = i-th row A1 + i-th row
Row and Column Properties
A2
Example

 2 0 0  3  2 0 0  3 2 0 0  3
 0 1 0 0   0 1 0 0   0 1 0 0 
B A1   A2  
 7 4 3 5  7 4 3 5 7 4 3 5
     
 18 6 6 12   12 4 4 10   6 2 2 2

det B  det A1  det A2

Prop 5: i-th col B = i-th col A1 + i-th col A2

Determinants
 upper tria ngular matrix lower tria ngular matrix
triangular matrix
2 2 1  3 2 0 0 0
0  1 2 9  2  1 0 0 Either
A A upper or
0 0 3 5 1 3 3 0 lower
   
0 0 0 4 9 7 4 4
Zeros below main diagonal Zeros above main diagonal

Prop 6: det( triangular ) = product of diagonal

2 2 1  3
Example 0  1 2 9 
A =(2)(-
0 0 3 5  1)(3)(4)=-24
 
0 0 0 4
Determinants
• Determinant of a Triangular Matrix

If A is an n  n triangular matrix (upper triangular, lower triangular, or

diagonal), then its determinant is the product of the entries on the main
diagonal. That is

det( A) | A | a11a22 a33 ann

3.34 Determinants
Row(Column) Operations

Following are the notations to evaluate a determinant:

(i) Ri to denote ith row

(ii) Ri  Rj to denote the interchange of ith and jth
rows.
(iii) Ri  Ri + lRj to denote the addition of l times the
elements of jth row to the corresponding elements
of ith row.
(iv) lRi to denote the multiplication of all elements of
ith row by l.

Similar notations can be used to denote column

operations by replacing R with C.

Determinants
Evaluation of Determinants

If a determinant becomes zero on putting

is the factor of the determinant.

x 5 2
For example, if Δ = x2 9 4 , then at x = 2
x3 16 8

  0 , because C1 and C2 are identical at x = 2

Hence, (x – 2) is a factor of determinant .

Determinants
Example-1
Find the value of the following determinants

(i) (ii)

Solution :

42 1 6 6×7 1 6
i  28 7 4 = 4×7 7 4
14 3 2 2×7 3 2
6 1 6
=7 4 7 4  Taking out 7 common from C1 
2 3 2

= 7×0  C1 and C3 are identical

=0
Determinants
Example –1 (ii)

(ii)

3   2  3 2
 1  2  1 2
5   2  5 2

3 3 2
 ( 2) 1 1 2 Taking out  2 common from C1 
5 5 2
 ( 2)  0  C1 and C2 are identical
0

Determinants
Example - 2
Evaluate the determinant

Solution :

1 a b+c 1 a a+b+c
1 b c+a = 1 b a+b+c  Applying c3  c2 +c3 
1 c a+b 1 c a+b+c

1 a 1
=  a+b+c  1 b 1  Taking  a+b+c  common from C3 
1 c 1

= a + b + c × 0  C1 and C3 are identical

=0

Determinants
Example - 3

Evaluate the determinant:

Solution:

a b c
We have a2 b2 c2
bc ca ab

(a-b) b- c c
= (a-b)(a+b) (b- c)(b+c) c2 Applying C1  C1 -C2 and C2  C2 - C3 
-c(a-b) -a(b- c) ab

1 1 c
 Taking  a-b  and b - c  common 
=(a-b)(b - c) a+b b+c c2  
 from C and C respectively 
-c -a ab 1 2

Determinants
Solution Cont.
0 1 c
=(a-b)(b - c) -(c - a) b+c c2  Applying c1  c1 - c2 
-(c - a) -a ab

0 1 c
=-(a-b)(b - c)(c - a) 1 b+c c2
1 -a ab

0 1 c
= -(a-b)(b - c)(c - a) 0 a+b+c c2 - ab Applying R 2  R 2 -R 3 
1 -a ab

Now expanding along C1 , we get

(a-b) (b-c) (c-a) [- (c2 – ab – ac – bc – c2)]
= (a-b) (b-c) (c-a) (ab + bc + ac)

Determinants
Example-4
Without expanding the determinant,

prove that

Solution :
3x+y 2x x 3x 2x x y 2x x
L.H.S = 4x+3y 3x 3x = 4x 3x 3x + 3y 3x 3x
5x+6y 4x 6x 5x 4x 6x 6y 4x 6x

3 2 1 1 2 1
= x3 4 3 3 + x2 y 3 3 3
5 4 6 6 4 6

3 2 1
= x3 4 3 3 + x2 y×0  C1 and C2 are identical in II determinant 
5 4 6
Determinants
Solution Cont.

3 2 1
= x3 4 3 3
5 4 6

1 2 1
= x3 1 3 3  Applying C1  C1 - C2 
1 4 6

1 2 1
= x3 0 1 2  Applying R2 R2 -R1 and R 3 R 3 -R 2 
0 1 3

= x3 ×(3-2) Expanding along C1 

=x3 = R.H.S.

Determinants
Example -5

Prove that : = 0 , where w is cube root of unity.

Solution :

1 ω3 ω5 1 ω3 ω3 .ω2
L.H.S = ω3 1 ω4 = ω3 1 ω3 .ω
ω5 ω5 1 ω3 .ω2 ω3.ω2 1

1 1 ω2
= 1 1 ω  ω3 =1
ω2 ω2 1

= 0 =R.H.S.  C1 and C2 are identical

Determinants
Example-6

Prove that :

Solution :

x+a b c x+a+b+c b c
L.H.S= a x+b c = x+a+b+c x+b c
a b x+C x+a+b+c b x+c
 Applying C1  C1 +C2 +C3 

1 b c
=  x+a+b+c  1 x+b c
1 b x+c
 Taking  x+a+b+c  common from C1 

Determinants
Solution cont.

1 b c
=(x+a+b+c) 0 x 0
0 0 x
 Applying R 2  R 2 -R1 and R 3  R 3 -R1 

Expanding along C1 , we get

(x + a + b + c) [1(x2)] = x2 (x + a + b + c)
= R.H.S

Determinants
Example -7
Using properties of determinants, prove that

Solution :
b+c c+a a+b
L.H.S= c+a a+b b+c
a+b b+c c+a

2(a+b+c) 2(a+b+c) 2(a+b+c)

= c+a a+b b+c Applying R1  R1 +R2 +R3 
a+b b+c c+a

1 1 1
=2(a+b+c) c+a a+b b+c
a+b b+c c+a Determinants
Solution Cont.

0 0 1
=2(a+b+c) (c -b) (a- c) b+c Applying C1  C1 - C2 and C2  C2 - C3 
(a- c) (b - a) c+a

Now expanding along R1 , we get

2(a+b+c) (c -b)(b - a)-(a- c)2 

= 2(a+b + c) bc - b2 - ac + ab - (a2 + c2 - 2ac)

=2(a+b+c) ab+bc+ac-a2 -b2 -c2 

=R.H.S

Determinants
Example - 8
Using properties of determinants prove that

Solution :

x+4 2x 2x 5x+4 2x 2x
L.H.S = 2x x+4 2x = 5x+4 x+4 2x Applying C1  C1 +C2 +C3 
2x 2x x+4 5x+4 2x x+4

1 2x 2x
=(5x+4) 1 x+4 2x
1 2x x+4

Determinants
 1 2x 2x
=(5x+4) 0 -(x - 4) 0  Applying R2  R2 -R1 and R 3  R 3 -R 2 
0 x - 4 -(x - 4)

Now expanding along C1 , we get

(5x + 4) 1(x - 4)2 - 0 

=(5x+4)(4- x)2

=R.H.S

Determinants
Example -9
Using properties of determinants, prove that

Solution :

x+9 x x
L.H.S= x x+9 x
x x x+9

3x+9 x x
= 3x+9 x+9 x  Applying C1  C1 +C2 +C3 
3x+9 x x+9

Determinants
Solution Cont.

1 x x
=(3x+9) 1 x+9 x
1 x x+9

1 x x
=3  x+3 0 9 0 Applying R 2 R 2 -R1 and R 3  R 3 -R 2 
0 -9 9

= 3(x +3) 81 Expanding along C1 

=243(x +3)
=R.H.S.

Determinants
Example -10

Show that

Solution :

(b+c)2 a2 bc b2 +c2 a2 bc
L.H.S.= (c +a)2 b2 ca = c2 +a2 b2 ca Applying C1  C1 - 2C3 
(a+b)2 c2 ab a2 +b2 c2 ab

a2 +b2 +c2 a2 bc
 a2 +b2 +c2 b2 ca  Applying C1  C1 +C2 
a2 +b2 +c2 c2 ab

1 a2 bc
=(a2 +b2 +c2 ) 1 b2 ca
1 c2 ab Determinants
Solution Cont.

1 a2 bc
=(a2 +b2 +c2) 0 (b- a)(b+a) c(a-b)  Applying R 2 R 2 -R1 and R 3  R 3 -R 2 
0 (c -b)(c+b) a(b- c)

1 a2 bc
=(a2 +b2 +c2 )(a-b)(b- c) 0 -(b+a) c
0 -(b+c) a

=(a2 +b2 +c2 )(a-b)(b- c)(-ab- a2 +bc+c2 ) Expanding along C1 

=(a2 +b2 +c2 )(a-b)(b - c) b  c - a +  c - a c+a 

=(a2 +b2 +c2 )(a-b)(b - c)(c - a)(a+b+c)=R.H.S.

Determinants
Solution of System of 2 Linear
Equations (Cramer’s Rule)

Let the system of linear equations be

a1x +b1y = c1 ...i

a2 x +b2y = c2 ...ii

D1 D2
Then x = , y= provided D  0,
D D

a1 b1 c1 b1 a1 c1
where D = , D1 = and D2 =
a2 b2 c2 b2 a2 c2

Determinants
Cramer’s Rule (Con.)
Note :
1 If D  0,

then the system is consistent and has unique solution.

2  If D = 0 and D1 = D2 = 0,

then the system is consistent and has infinitely many

solutions.

3 If D = 0 and one of D1, D2  0,

then the system is inconsistent and has no solution.

Determinants
Example
Using Cramer's rule , solve the following
system of equations 2x-3y=7, 3x+y=5

Solution :
2 -3
D= = 2+9 =11  0
3 1

7 -3
D1 = =7+15=22
5 1

2 7
D2 = =10-21=-11
3 5

D0
D1 22 D -11
By Cramer's Rule x = = =2 and y = 2 = =-1
D 11 D 11

Determinants
Solution of System of 3 Linear
Equations (Cramer’s Rule)
Let the system of linear equations be
a1x +b1y +c1z = d1 ... i

a2 x +b2 y +c2z = d2 ... ii

a3x +b3y +c3z = d3 ... iii

D1 D2 D3
Then x = , y= , z= provided D  0,
D D D

a1 b1 c1 d1 b1 c1 a1 d1 c1
where D = a2 b2 c2 , D1 = d2 b2 c2 , D2 = a2 d2 c2
a3 b3 c3 d3 b3 c3 a3 d3 c3

a1 b1 d1
and D3 = a2 b2 d2
a3 b3 d3 Determinants
Cramer’s Rule (Con.)

Note:

(1) If D  0, then the system is consistent and has a unique

solution.

(2) If D=0 and D1 = D2 = D3 = 0, then the system has infinite

solutions or no solution.

(3) If D = 0 and one of D1, D2, D3  0, then the system

is inconsistent and has no solution.

(4) If d1 = d2 = d3 = 0, then the system is called the system of

homogeneous linear equations.

(i) If D  0, then the system has only trivial solution x = y = z = 0.

(ii) If D = 0, then the system has infinite solutions.

Determinants
Example
Using Cramer's rule , solve the following
system of equations
5x - y+ 4z = 5
2x + 3y+ 5z = 2
5x - 2y + 6z = -1

Solution :

5 -1 4 = 5(18+10) + 1(12-25)+4(-4 -15)

D= 2 3 5 = 140 –13 –76 =140 - 89
5 -2 6 = 51  0

5 -1 4 = 5(18+10)+1(12+5)+4(-4 +3)
D1 = 2 3 5 = 140 +17 –4
-1 -2 6 = 153

Determinants
Solution Cont.

5 5 4 = 5(12 +5)+5(12 - 25)+ 4(-2 - 10)

D2 = 2 2 5 = 85 + 65 – 48 = 150 - 48
5 -1 6 = 102

5 -1 5
= 5(-3 +4)+1(-2 - 10)+5(-4-15)
D3 = 2 3 2 = 5 – 12 – 95 = 5 - 107
5 -2 -1 = - 102

D0
D1 153 D 102
 By Cramer's Rule x = = = 3, y = 2 = =2
D 51 D 51
D3 -102
and z = = = -2
D 51

Determinants
Example
Solve the following system of homogeneous linear equations:
x + y – z = 0, x – 2y + z = 0, 3x + 6y + -5z = 0

Solution:

1 1 - 1
 
We have D = 1 -2 1  = 1 10 - 6  - 1 -5 - 3  - 1 6 + 6 
3 6 - 5 
= 4 + 8 - 12 = 0

 The system has infinitely many solutions.

Putting z = k, in first two equations, we get

x + y = k, x – 2y = -k

Determinants
Solution (Con.)
k 1
D1 -k -2 -2k + k k
 By Cramer's rule x = = = =
D 1 1 -2 - 1 3
1 -2
1 k
D2 1 -k -k - k 2k
y= = = =
D 1 1 -2 - 1 3
1 -2

These values of x, y and z = k satisfy (iii) equation.

k 2k
x= , y= , z = k , where k  R
3 3

Determinants